+ New Zealand (Māori: Aotearoa[aɔˈtɛaɾɔa]) is a sovereignisland country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island (Te Ika-a-Māui), and the South Island (Te Waipounamu)—and around 600 smaller islands. It has a total land area of 268,000 square kilometres (103,500 sq mi). New Zealand is situated some 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres (600 mi) south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. Because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, and plant life. The country's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealand's capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland.
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+ Aotearoa (pronounced ; often translated as "land of the long white cloud")[17] is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans, with Aotearoa originally referring to just the North Island.[18] Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui (the fish of Māui) for the North Island and Te Waipounamu (the waters of greenstone) or Te Waka o Aoraki (the canoe of Aoraki) for the South Island.[19] Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island) and South (Stewart Island / Rakiura).[20] In 1830, mapmakers began to use "North" and "South" on their maps to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907 this was the accepted norm.[16] The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013. This set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu.[21] For each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together.[21]
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+ History
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The Māori people are most likely descended from people who emigrated from Taiwan to Melanesia and then travelled east through to the Society Islands. After a pause of 70 to 265 years, a new wave of exploration led to the discovery and settlement of New Zealand.[22]
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+ New Zealand was one of the last major landmasses settled by humans. Radiocarbon dating, evidence of deforestation[23] and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations[24] suggest New Zealand was first settled by Eastern Polynesians between 1250 and 1300,[19][25] concluding a long series of voyages through the southern Pacific islands.[26] Over the centuries that followed, these settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori. The population was divided into iwi (tribes) and hapū (subtribes) who would sometimes cooperate, sometimes compete and sometimes fight against each other.[27] At some point a group of Māori migrated to Rēkohu, now known as the Chatham Islands, where they developed their distinct Moriori culture.[28][29] The Moriori population was all but wiped out between 1835 and 1862, largely because of Taranaki Māori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s, although European diseases also contributed. In 1862 only 101 survived, and the last known full-blooded Moriori died in 1933.[30]
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Map of the New Zealand coastline as Cook charted it on his first visit in 1769–70. The track of the Endeavour is also shown.
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+ The first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel Tasman and his crew in 1642.[31] In a hostile encounter, four crew members were killed and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot.[32] Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline.[31] Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing and trading ships. They traded European food, metal tools, weapons and other goods for timber, Māori food, artefacts and water.[33] The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns.[34] The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori.[35] From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population.[36] The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.[37]
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+ In 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip assumed the position of Governor of the new British colony of New South Wales which according to his commission included New Zealand.[38] The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832 following a petition from northern Māori.[39] In 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry, the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection.[39] Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for the United Kingdom and negotiate a treaty with the Māori.[40] The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840.[41] In response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington[42] and French settlers purchasing land in Akaroa,[43] Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the Treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign.[44] With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.[45]
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+ New Zealand, still part of the colony of New South Wales, became a separate Colonyof New Zealand on 1 July 1841.[46] Armed conflict began between the Colonial government and Māori in 1843 with the Wairau Affray over land and disagreements over sovereignty. These conflicts, mainly in the North Island, saw thousands of Imperial troops and the Royal Navy come to New Zealand and became known as the New Zealand Wars. Following these armed conflicts, large amounts of Māori land was confiscated by the government to meet settler demands.[47]
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+ The colony gained a representative government in 1852 and the first Parliament met in 1854.[48] In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters other than native policy.[48] (Control over native policy was granted in the mid-1860s.[48]) Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near Cook Strait.[49] Wellington was chosen for its central location, with Parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865.[50]
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+ In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a Dominion within the British Empire,[54] reflecting its self-governing status.[55] In 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster, confirming that the British Parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand.[48]
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+ The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the Queen and the House of Representatives.[72] It also included an upper house, the Legislative Council, until this was abolished in 1950.[72] The supremacy of parliament over the Crown and other government institutions was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand.[72] The House of Representatives is democratically elected and a government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats. If no majority is formed, a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured.[72] The governor-general appoints ministers under advice from the prime minister, who is by convention the parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition.[73]Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by the prime minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions.[74] Members of Cabinet make major decisions collectively, and are therefore collectively responsible for the consequences of these decisions.[75]
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+ A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election.[76] Almost all general elections between 1853 and 1993 were held under the first-past-the-post voting system.[77] Since the 1996 election, a form of proportional representation called mixed-member proportional (MMP) has been used.[66] Under the MMP system, each person has two votes; one is for a candidate standing in the voter's electorate and the other is for a party. Since the 2014 election, there have been 71 electorates (which include seven Māori electorates in which only Māori can optionally vote),[78] and the remaining 49 of the 120 seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote, with the threshold that a party must win at least one electorate or 5% of the total party vote before it is eligible for a seat.[79]
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+ Elections since the 1930s have been dominated by two political parties, National and Labour.[77] Between March 2005 and August 2006, New Zealand became the first country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land—head of state, governor-general, prime minister, speaker and chief justice—were occupied simultaneously by women.[80] The current prime minister is Jacinda Ardern, who has been in office since 26 October 2017.[81] She is the country's third female prime minister.[82]
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+ New Zealand's judiciary, headed by the chief justice,[83] includes the Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, the High Court, and subordinate courts.[84] Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain judicial independence.[66] This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions.[85]
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+ New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states.[86] As at 2017, the country was ranked fourth in the strength of its democratic institutions,[87] and first in government transparency and lack of corruption.[88] A 2017 Human Rights Report by the U.S. Department of State noted that the government generally respected the rights of individuals, but voiced concerns regarding the social status of the Māori population.[89] New Zealand ranks highly for civic participation in the political process, with 77% voter turnout during recent elections, compared to an OECD average of 69%.[90]
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+ Foreign relations and military
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+ Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy.[91] The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate its own political treaties and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan. On 3 September 1939 New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand."[92]
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+ In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests,[93] while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty.[94] The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War,[95] the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior,[96] disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy.[97][98] Despite the United States' suspension of ANZUS obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend.[99] Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions.[100] In 2013 there were about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which is equivalent to 15% of the resident population of New Zealand.[101]
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+ The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces, which had a degree of autonomy.[121] Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways, education, land sales and other policies, government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876.[122] The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays[123] and sporting rivalries.[124]
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+ Since 1876, various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government.[121][125] In 1989, the government reorganised local government into the current two-tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities.[126] The 249 municipalities[126] that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils.[127] The regional councils' role is to regulate "the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management",[126] while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents and other local matters.[128][129] Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils.[129] The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53 district councils, and the Chatham Islands Council. While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it undertakes many functions of a regional council.[130]
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+ The Realm of New Zealand, one of 16 Commonwealth realms,[131] is the entire area over which the Queen of New Zealand is sovereign, and comprises New Zealand, Tokelau, the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands and Niue.[65] The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand.[132][133] The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries, but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau is classified as a non-self-governing territory, but is administered by a council of three elders (one from each Tokelauan atoll).[134] The Ross Dependency is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica, where it operates the Scott Base research facility.[135]New Zealand nationality law treats all parts of the realm equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau and the Ross Dependency are New Zealand citizens.[136][n 7]
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+ The Southern Alps stretch for 500 kilometres down the South Island
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+ New Zealand is long and narrow (over 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of 400 kilometres (250 mi)),[142] with about 15,000 km (9,300 mi) of coastline[143] and a total land area of 268,000 square kilometres (103,500 sq mi).[144] Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline, the country has extensive marine resources. Its exclusive economic zone is one of the largest in the world, covering more than 15 times its land area.[145]
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+ The South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand. It is divided along its length by the Southern Alps.[146] There are 18 peaks over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft), the highest of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook at 3,754 metres (12,316 ft).[147]Fiordland's steep mountains and deep fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this southwestern corner of the South Island.[148] The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism.[149] The highly active Taupo Volcanic Zone has formed a large volcanic plateau, punctuated by the North Island's highest mountain, Mount Ruapehu (2,797 metres (9,177 ft)). The plateau also hosts the country's largest lake, Lake Taupo,[150] nestled in the caldera of one of the world's most active supervolcanoes.[151]
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+ New Zealand is part of a region known as Australasia, together with Australia.[155] It also forms the southwestern extremity of the geographic and ethnographic region called Polynesia.[156] The term Oceania is often used to denote the wider region encompassing the Australian continent, New Zealand and various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model.[157]
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Landscapes of New Zealand
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+ Climate
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+ New Zealand's climate is predominantly temperate maritime (Köppen: Cfb), with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 °C (50 °F) in the south to 16 °C (61 °F) in the north.[158] Historical maxima and minima are 42.4 °C (108.32 °F) in Rangiora, Canterbury and −25.6 °C (−14.08 °F) in Ranfurly, Otago.[159] Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland.[160] Of the seven largest cities, Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only 640 millimetres (25 in) of rain per year and Wellington the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount.[161] Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and southwestern parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,400–1,600 hours; the northern and northeastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours.[162] The general snow season is early June until early October, though cold snaps can occur outside this season.[163] Snowfall is common in the eastern and southern parts of the South Island and mountain areas across the country.[158]
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+ The table below lists climate normals for the warmest and coldest months in New Zealand's six largest cities. North Island cities are generally warmest in February. South Island cities are warmest in January.
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+ Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for the six largest cities of New Zealand[164]
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+ New Zealand's geographic isolation for 80 million years[165] and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country's species of animals, fungi and plants. Physical isolation has caused biological isolation, resulting in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of very distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species.[166][167] About 82% of New Zealand's indigenous vascular plants are endemic, covering 1,944 species across 65 genera.[168][169] The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand, including lichen-forming species, is not known, nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic, but one estimate suggests there are about 2,300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand[168] and 40% of these are endemic.[170] The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps, or by southern beech in cooler climates.[171] The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are tussock.[172]
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+ Before the arrival of humans, an estimated 80% of the land was covered in forest, with only high alpine, wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees.[173] Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement.[174] Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23% of the land.[175]
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The giant Haast's eagle died out when humans hunted its main prey, the moa, to extinction.
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+ Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles (tuatara, skinks and geckos), frogs,[179]spiders,[180] insects (weta)[181] and snails.[182] Some, such as the tuatara, are so unique that they have been called living fossils.[183] Three species of bats (one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique, mouse-sized land mammal at least 16 million years old.[184][185] Marine mammals however are abundant, with almost half the world's cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters.[186] Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country.[187] More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country.[188]
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+ Since human arrival, almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty-one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, and one bat. Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced.[177] However, New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering, and ecological restoration of islands and other selected areas.[189][190][191][192]
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+ Historically, extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand's economy, focussing at different times on sealing, whaling, flax, gold, kauri gum, and native timber.[196] The first shipment of refrigerated meat on the Dunedin in 1882 led to the establishment of meat and dairy exports to Britain, a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand.[197] High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s.[198] In 1973, New Zealand's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community[199] and other compounding factors, such as the 1973 oil and 1979 energy crises, led to a severe economic depression.[200] Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank.[201] In the mid-1980s New Zealand deregulated its agricultural sector by phasing out subsidies over a three-year period.[202][203] Since 1984, successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring (known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia), rapidly transforming New Zealand from a protected and highly regulated economy to a liberalised free-trade economy.[204][205]
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Milford Sound is one of New Zealand's most famous tourist destinations.[206]
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+ Unemployment peaked above 10% in 1991 and 1992,[207] following the 1987 share market crash, but eventually fell to a record low (since 1986) of 3.7% in 2007 (ranking third from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations).[207] However, the global financial crisis that followed had a major impact on New Zealand, with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters, the longest recession in over thirty years,[208][209] and unemployment rising back to 7% in late 2009.[210] Unemployment rates for different age groups follow similar trends, but are consistently higher among youth. In the December 2014 quarter, the general unemployment rate was around 5.8%, while the unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 21 was 15.6%.[207] New Zealand has experienced a series of "brain drains" since the 1970s[211] that still continue today.[212] Nearly one quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas, mostly in Australia and Britain, which is the largest proportion from any developed nation.[213] In recent decades, however, a "brain gain" has brought in educated professionals from Europe and less developed countries.[214][215] Today New Zealand's economy benefits from a high level of innovation.[216]
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+ Trade
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+ New Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade,[217] particularly in agricultural products.[218] Exports account for 24% of its output,[143] making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns. Food products made up 55% of the value of all the country's exports in 2014; wood was the second largest earner (7%).[219] New Zealand's main trading partners, as at June 2018, are China (NZ$27.8b), Australia ($26.2b), the European Union ($22.9b), the United States ($17.6b), and Japan ($8.4b).[220] On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement, the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country.[221] The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction.[143]Tourism plays a significant role in the economy, contributing $12.9 billion (or 5.6%) to New Zealand's total GDP and supporting 7.5% of the total workforce in 2016.[222] International visitor arrivals are expected to increase at a rate of 5.4% annually up to 2022.[222]
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Wool has historically been one of New Zealand's major exports.
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+ Wool was New Zealand's major agricultural export during the late 19th century.[196] Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues,[196] but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities[223] and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers.[224] In contrast dairy farming increased, with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007,[225] to become New Zealand's largest export earner.[226] In the year to June 2018, dairy products accounted for 17.7% ($14.1 billion) of total exports,[220] and the country's largest company, Fonterra, controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade.[227] Other exports in 2017-18 were meat (8.8%), wood and wood products (6.2%), fruit (3.6%), machinery (2.2%) and wine (2.1%).[220]New Zealand's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period,[228] overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007.[229][230]
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+ The provision of water supply and sanitation is generally of good quality. Regional authorities provide water abstraction, treatment and distribution infrastructure to most developed areas.[232][233]
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+ New Zealand's transport network comprises 94,000 kilometres (58,410 mi) of roads, including 199 kilometres (124 mi) of motorways,[234] and 4,128 kilometres (2,565 mi) of railway lines.[143] Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services, although the private car is the predominant mode of transport.[235] The railways were privatised in 1993, but were re-nationalised by the government in stages between 2004 and 2008. The state-owned enterprise KiwiRail now operates the railways, with the exception of commuter services in Auckland and Wellington which are operated by Transdev[236] and Metlink,[237] respectively. Railways run the length of the country, although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers.[238] Most international visitors arrive via air[239] and New Zealand has six international airports, but currently only the Auckland and Christchurch airports connect directly with countries other than Australia or Fiji.[240]
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+ The New Zealand Post Office had a monopoly over telecommunications in New Zealand until 1987 when Telecom New Zealand was formed, initially as a state-owned enterprise and then privatised in 1990.[241]Chorus, which was split from Telecom (now Spark) in 2011,[242] still owns the majority of the telecommunications infrastructure, but competition from other providers has increased.[241] A large-scale rollout of gigabit-capable fibre to the premises, branded as Ultra-Fast Broadband, began in 2009 with a target of being available to 87% of the population by 2022.[243] As of 2017, the United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks New Zealand 13th in the development of information and communications infrastructure.[244]
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+ Demography
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+ The 2013 New Zealand census enumerated a resident population of 4,242,048, an increase of 5.3% over the 2006 figure.[245][n 8] As of September 2019, the total population has risen to an estimated 4,933,210.[5]
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+ New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with 73.0% of the population living in the seventeen main urban areas (i.e. population 30,000 or greater) and 55.1% living in the four largest cities of Auckland, Christchurch, Wellington, and Hamilton.[247] New Zealand cities generally rank highly on international livability measures. For instance, in 2016 Auckland was ranked the world's third most liveable city and Wellington the twelfth by the Mercer Quality of Living Survey.[248]
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+ Life expectancy for New Zealanders in 2012 was 84 years for females, and 80.2 years for males.[249] Life expectancy at birth is forecast to increase from 80 years to 85 years in 2050 and infant mortality is expected to decline.[250] New Zealand's fertility rate of 2.1 is relatively high for a developed country, and natural births account for a significant proportion of population growth. Consequently, the country has a young population compared to most industrialised nations, with 20% of New Zealanders being 14 years old or younger.[143] In 2018 the median age of the New Zealand population was 38.1 years.[251] By 2050 the median age is projected to rise to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older to rise from 18% to 29%.[250] In 2008 the leading cause of premature death was cancer, at 29.8%, followed by ischaemic heart disease, 19.7%, and then cerebrovascular disease, 9.2%.[252] As of 2016, total expenditure on health care (including private sector spending) is 9.2% of GDP.[253]
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Pedestrians on Queen Street in Auckland, an ethnically diverse city
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+ In the 2013 census, 74.0% of New Zealand residents identified ethnically as European, and 14.9% as Māori. Other major ethnic groups include Asian (11.8%) and Pacific peoples (7.4%), two-thirds of whom live in the Auckland Region.[255][n 3] The population has become more diverse in recent decades: in 1961, the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92% European and 7% Māori, with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1%.[256]
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+ While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal "Kiwi" is commonly used both internationally[257] and by locals.[258] The Māori loanword Pākehā has been used to refer to New Zealanders of European descent, although others reject this appellation.[259][260] The word Pākehā today is increasingly used to refer to all non-Polynesian New Zealanders.[261]
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+ The Māori were the first people to reach New Zealand, followed by the early European settlers. Following colonisation, immigrants were predominantly from Britain, Ireland and Australia because of restrictive policies similar to the White Australia policy.[262] There was also significant Dutch, Dalmatian,[263] German, and Italian immigration, together with indirect European immigration through Australia, North America, South America and South Africa.[264][265] Net migration increased after the Second World War; in the 1970s and 1980s policies were relaxed and immigration from Asia was promoted.[265][266] In 2009–10, an annual target of 45,000–50,000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service—more than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents.[267] Just over 25% of New Zealand's population was born overseas, with the majority (52%) living in the Auckland Region. The United Kingdom remains the largest source of New Zealand's overseas population, with a quarter of all overseas-born New Zealanders born there; other major sources of New Zealand's overseas-born population are China, India, Australia, South Africa, Fiji and Samoa.[268] The number of fee-paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20,000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002.[269]
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+ Language
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Speakers of Māori according to the 2013 census[270]
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Less than 5%
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More than 5%
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More than 10%
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More than 20%
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More than 30%
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More than 40%
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More than 50%
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+ English is the predominant language in New Zealand, spoken by 96.1% of the population.[271]New Zealand English is similar to Australian English and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart.[272] The most prominent differences between the New Zealand English dialect and other English dialects are the shifts in the short front vowels: the short-"i" sound (as in "kit") has centralised towards the schwa sound (the "a" in "comma" and "about"); the short-"e" sound (as in "dress") has moved towards the short-"i" sound; and the short-"a" sound (as in "trap") has moved to the short-"e" sound.[273]
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+ After the Second World War, Māori were discouraged from speaking their own language (te reo Māori) in schools and workplaces and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas.[274] It has recently undergone a process of revitalisation,[275] being declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 1987,[276] and is spoken by 3.7% of the population.[271][n 9] There are now Māori language immersion schools and two television channels that broadcast predominantly in Māori.[278]Many places have both their Māori and English names officially recognised.[279]
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+ As recorded in the 2013 census,[271]Samoan is the most widely spoken non-official language (2.2%),[n 10] followed by Hindi (1.7%), "Northern Chinese" (including Mandarin, 1.3%) and French (1.2%). 20,235 people (0.5%) reported the ability to use New Zealand Sign Language. It was declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 2006.[280]
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+ Religion
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A Rātana church on a hill near Raetihi. The two-tower construction is characteristic of Rātana buildings.
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+
+
+ Christianity is the predominant religion in New Zealand, although its society is among the most secular in the world.[281][282] In the 2018 census, 51.4% of the population identified with one or more religions, including 38.6% identifying as Christians. Another 48.6% indicated that they had no religion.[n 11] The main Christian denominations are, by number of adherents, Roman Catholicism (10.1%), Anglicanism (6.8%), Presbyterianism (5.5%) and "Christian not further defined" (i.e. people identifying as Christian but not stating the denomination, 6.6%). The Māori-based Ringatū and Rātana religions (1.3%) are also Christian in origin.[284][285] Immigration and demographic change in recent decades has contributed to the growth of minority religions,[286] such as Hinduism (2.6%), Buddhism (1.1%), Islam (1.3%) and Sikhism (0.5%).[284] The Auckland Region exhibited the greatest religious diversity.[284]
+
+
+ Education
+
+
+
+ Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16, with the majority attending from the age of 5.[287] There are 13 school years and attending state (public) schools is free to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents from a person's 5th birthday to the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday.[288] New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99%,[143] and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification.[287] There are five types of government-owned tertiary institutions: universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, specialist colleges, and wānanga,[289] in addition to private training establishments.[290] In the adult population 14.2% have a bachelor's degree or higher, 30.4% have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22.4% have no formal qualification.[291] The OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment ranks New Zealand's education system as the seventh best in the world, with students performing exceptionally well in reading, mathematics and science.[292]
+
+
+
+ Culture
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Late 20th-century house-post depicting the navigator Kupe fighting two sea creatures
+
+
+
+
+ Early Māori adapted the tropically based east Polynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment, eventually developing their own distinctive culture. Social organisation was largely communal with families (whānau), subtribes (hapū) and tribes (iwi) ruled by a chief (rangatira), whose position was subject to the community's approval.[293] The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Māori culture,[294][295] particularly with the introduction of Christianity.[296] However, Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their identity, and Māori kinship roles resemble those of other Polynesian peoples.[297] More recently American, Australian, Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand. Non-Māori Polynesian cultures are also apparent, with Pasifika, the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an annual event in Auckland.[298]
+
+
+ The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged, industrious problem solvers.[299] Modesty was expected and enforced through the "tall poppy syndrome", where high achievers received harsh criticism.[300] At the time New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country.[301] From the early 20th century until the late 1960s, Māori culture was suppressed by the attempted assimilation of Māori into British New Zealanders.[274] In the 1960s, as tertiary education became more available and cities expanded[302] urban culture began to dominate.[303] However, rural imagery and themes are common in New Zealand's art, literature and media.[304]
+
+
+ New Zealand's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Māori sources. The silver fern is an emblem appearing on army insignia and sporting team uniforms.[305] Certain items of popular culture thought to be unique to New Zealand are called "Kiwiana".[305]
+
+
+ Art
+
+
+
+ As part of the resurgence of Māori culture, the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practised and Māori artists are increasing in number and influence.[306] Most Māori carvings feature human figures, generally with three fingers and either a natural-looking, detailed head or a grotesque head.[307] Surface patterns consisting of spirals, ridges, notches and fish scales decorate most carvings.[308] The pre-eminent Māori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses (wharenui) decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations. These buildings were originally designed to be constantly rebuilt, changing and adapting to different whims or needs.[309]
+
+
+ Māori decorated the white wood of buildings, canoes and cenotaphs using red (a mixture of red ochre and shark fat) and black (made from soot) paint and painted pictures of birds, reptiles and other designs on cave walls.[310] Māori tattoos (moko) consisting of coloured soot mixed with gum were cut into the flesh with a bone chisel.[311] Since European arrival paintings and photographs have been dominated by landscapes, originally not as works of art but as factual portrayals of New Zealand.[312] Portraits of Māori were also common, with early painters often portraying them as "noble savages", exotic beauties or friendly natives.[312] The country's isolation delayed the influence of European artistic trends allowing local artists to develop their own distinctive style of regionalism.[313] During the 1960s and 1970s many artists combined traditional Māori and Western techniques, creating unique art forms.[314] New Zealand art and craft has gradually achieved an international audience, with exhibitions in the Venice Biennale in 2001 and the "Paradise Now" exhibition in New York in 2004.[306][315]
+
+
+
+
+
+ Māori cloaks are made of fine flax fibre and patterned with black, red and white triangles, diamonds and other geometric shapes.[316]Greenstone was fashioned into earrings and necklaces, with the most well-known design being the hei-tiki, a distorted human figure sitting cross-legged with its head tilted to the side.[317] Europeans brought English fashion etiquette to New Zealand, and until the 1950s most people dressed up for social occasions.[318] Standards have since relaxed and New Zealand fashion has received a reputation for being casual, practical and lacklustre.[319][320] However, the local fashion industry has grown significantly since 2000, doubling exports and increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels, with some labels gaining international recognition.[320]
+
+
+ Literature
+
+
+
+ Māori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form.[321] Most early English literature was obtained from Britain and it was not until the 1950s when local publishing outlets increased that New Zealand literature started to become widely known.[322] Although still largely influenced by global trends (modernism) and events (the Great Depression), writers in the 1930s began to develop stories increasingly focused on their experiences in New Zealand. During this period literature changed from a journalistic activity to a more academic pursuit.[323] Participation in the world wars gave some New Zealand writers a new perspective on New Zealand culture and with the post-war expansion of universities local literature flourished.[324] Dunedin is a UNESCO City of Literature.[325]
+
+
+ Media and entertainment
+
+
+
+ New Zealand music has been influenced by blues, jazz, country, rock and roll and hip hop, with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation.[326] Māori developed traditional chants and songs from their ancient Southeast Asian origins, and after centuries of isolation created a unique "monotonous" and "doleful" sound.[327] Flutes and trumpets were used as musical instruments[328] or as signalling devices during war or special occasions.[329] Early settlers brought over their ethnic music, with brass bands and choral music being popular, and musicians began touring New Zealand in the 1860s.[330][331]Pipe bands became widespread during the early 20th century.[332] The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States.[326] Some artists release Māori language songs and the Māori tradition-based art of kapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence.[333] The New Zealand Music Awards are held annually by Recorded Music NZ; the awards were first held in 1965 by Reckitt & Colman as the Loxene Golden Disc awards.[334] Recorded Music NZ also publishes the country's official weekly record charts.[335]
+
+
+
+
+
+ Public radio was introduced in New Zealand in 1922.[337] A state-owned television service began in 1960.[338] Deregulation in the 1980s saw a sudden increase in the numbers of radio and television stations.[339] New Zealand television primarily broadcasts American and British programming, along with a large number of Australian and local shows.[340] The number of New Zealand films significantly increased during the 1970s. In 1978 the New Zealand Film Commission started assisting local film-makers and many films attained a world audience, some receiving international acknowledgement.[339] The highest-grossing New Zealand films are Hunt for the Wilderpeople, Boy, The World's Fastest Indian, Once Were Warriors and Whale Rider.[341] The country's diverse scenery and compact size, plus government incentives,[342] have encouraged some producers to shoot big-budget productions in New Zealand, including Avatar, The Lord of the Rings, The Hobbit, The Chronicles of Narnia, King Kong and The Last Samurai.[343] The New Zealand media industry is dominated by a small number of companies, most of which are foreign-owned, although the state retains ownership of some television and radio stations.[344] Since 1994, Freedom House has consistently ranked New Zealand's press freedom in the top twenty, with the 19th freest media in 2015.[345]
+
+
+
+ Sports
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ Most of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have British origins.[346]Rugby union is considered the national sport[347] and attracts the most spectators.[348]Golf, netball, tennis and cricket have the highest rates of adult participation, while netball, rugby union and football (soccer) are particularly popular among young people.[348][349] Around 54% of New Zealand adolescents participate in sports for their school.[349] Victorious rugby tours to Australia and the United Kingdom in the late 1880s and the early 1900s played an early role in instilling a national identity.[350]Horseracing was also a popular spectator sport and became part of the "Rugby, Racing and Beer" culture during the 1960s.[351] Māori participation in European sports was particularly evident in rugby and the country's team performs a haka, a traditional Māori challenge, before international matches.[352] New Zealand is known for its extreme sports, adventure tourism[353] and strong mountaineering tradition, as seen in the success of notable New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary.[354][355] Other outdoor pursuits such as cycling, fishing, swimming, running, tramping, canoeing, hunting, snowsports, surfing and sailing are also popular.[356] The Polynesian sport of waka ama racing has experienced a resurgence of interest in New Zealand since the 1980s.[357]
+
+ The national cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim, incorporating the native Māori cuisine and diverse culinary traditions introduced by settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia and Asia.[363] New Zealand yields produce from land and sea—most crops and livestock, such as maize, potatoes and pigs, were gradually introduced by the early European settlers.[364] Distinctive ingredients or dishes include lamb, salmon, kōura (crayfish),[365]dredge oysters, whitebait, pāua (abalone), mussels, scallops, pipis and tuatua (both are types of New Zealand shellfish),[366]kūmara (sweet potato), kiwifruit, tamarillo and pavlova (considered a national dish).[367][363] A hāngi is a traditional Māori method of cooking food using heated rocks buried in a pit oven. After European colonisation, Māori began cooking with pots and ovens and the hāngi was used less frequently, although it is still used for formal occasions such as tangihanga.[368]
+
+ ^"God Save the Queen" is officially a national anthem but is generally used only on regal and viceregal occasions.[1]
+
+
+ ^English is a de facto official language due to its widespread use.[2]
+
+
+ ^ abEthnicity figures add to more than 100% as people could choose more than one ethnic group.
+
+
+ ^The proportion of New Zealand's area (excluding estuaries) covered by rivers, lakes and ponds, based on figures from the New Zealand Land Cover Database,[4] is (357526 + 81936) / (26821559 – 92499–26033 – 19216) = 1.6%. If estuarine open water, mangroves, and herbaceous saline vegetation are included, the figure is 2.2%.
+
+
+ ^The Chatham Islands have a separate time zone, 45 minutes ahead of the rest of New Zealand.
+
+
+ ^Clocks are advanced by an hour from the last Sunday in September until the first Sunday in April.[9] Daylight saving time is also observed in the Chatham Islands, 45 minutes ahead of NZDT.
+
+
+ ^A person born on or after 1 January 2006 acquires New Zealand citizenship at birth only if at least one parent is a New Zealand citizen or permanent resident. People born on or before 31 December 2005 acquired citizenship at birth (jus soli).[137]
+
+
+ ^The population is increasing at a rate of 1.4–2.0% per year and is projected to rise to 5.01–5.51 million in 2025.[246]
+
+
+ ^In 2015, 55% of Māori adults (aged 15 years and over) reported knowledge of te reo Māori. Of these speakers, 64% use Māori at home and 50,000 can speak the language "very well" or "well".[277]
+
+
+ ^Of the 86,403 people that replied they spoke Samoan, 51,336 lived in the Auckland Region.
+
+
+ ^Religion percentages may not add to 100% as people could claim multiple religions or object to answering the question.
+
+ ^New Zealand Government (21 December 2007). International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Fifth Periodic Report of the Government of New Zealand(PDF) (Report). p. 89. Archived from the original(PDF) on 24 January 2015. Retrieved 18 November 2015. In addition to the Māori language, New Zealand Sign Language is also an official language of New Zealand. The New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006 permits the use of NZSL in legal proceedings, facilitates competency standards for its interpretation and guides government departments in its promotion and use. English, the medium for teaching and learning in most schools, is a de facto official language by virtue of its widespread use. For these reasons, these three languages have special mention in the New Zealand Curriculum.
+
+
+ ^ ab"Population clock". Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
+ The population estimate shown is automatically calculated daily at 00:00 UTC and is based on data obtained from the population clock on the date shown in the citation.
+
+
+ ^ abcde"New Zealand". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 9 October 2018.
+
+
+ ^There is no official all-numeric date format for New Zealand, but government recommendations generally follow Australian date and time notation. See "The Govt.nz style guide", New Zealand Government, 9 December 2016, retrieved 7 March 2019
+ .
+
+ ^Wilson, John (September 2007). "Tasman's achievement". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 16 February 2008.
+
+
+
+ ^Mackay, Duncan (1986). "The Search For The Southern Land". In Fraser, B (ed.). The New Zealand Book Of Events. Auckland: Reed Methuen. pp. 52–54.
+
+
+ ^Ballara, Angela (1998). Iwi: The Dynamics of Māori Tribal Organisation from c. 1769 to c. 1945 (1st ed.). Wellington: Victoria University Press. ISBN9780864733283.
+
+
+
+ ^Clark, Ross (1994). "Moriori and Māori: The Linguistic Evidence". In Sutton, Douglas (ed.). The Origins of the First New Zealanders. Auckland: Auckland University Press. pp. 123–135.
+
+
+
+ ^Davis, Denise (September 2007). "The impact of new arrivals". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 30 April 2010.
+
+
+ ^Brailsford, Barry (1972). Arrows of Plague. Wellington: Hick Smith and Sons. p. 35. ISBN0-456-01060-2.
+
+
+
+ ^Wagstrom, Thor (2005). "Broken Tongues and Foreign Hearts". In Brock, Peggy (ed.). Indigenous Peoples and Religious Change. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 71 and 73. ISBN978-90-04-13899-5.
+
+
+
+ ^Lange, Raeburn (1999). May the people live: a history of Māori health development 1900–1920. Auckland University Press. p. 18. ISBN978-1-86940-214-3.
+
+
+
+ ^"A Nation sub-divided". Australian Heritage. Heritage Australia Publishing. 2011. Archived from the original on 28 February 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2014.
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Sir George Gipps. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
+
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+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Settlement from 1840 to 1852. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^Foster, Bernard (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. McLintock, Alexander (ed.). Akaroa, French Settlement At. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
+
+
+ ^"Royal Titles Act 1974". New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. February 1974. Section 1. Retrieved 8 January 2011.
+
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+ ^"Constitution Act 1986". New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. 1 January 1987. Section 2.1. Retrieved 15 July 2018. The Sovereign in right of New Zealand is the head of State of New Zealand, and shall be known by the royal style and titles proclaimed from time to time.
+
+
+ ^"New Zealand". OECD Better Life Index. 2016. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
+
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. External Relations. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^"Michael Joseph Savage". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. July 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
+
+
+ ^Ayson, Robert (2007). "New Zealand Defence and Security Policy,1990–2005". In Alley, Roderic (ed.). New Zealand In World Affairs, Volume IV: 1990–2005. Wellington: Victoria University Press. p. 132. ISBN978-0-86473-548-5.
+
+
+
+ ^"The Battle for Crete". New Zealand History. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. May 2010. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
+
+
+ ^Prideaux, Bruce (2007). Ryan, Chris (ed.). Battlefield tourism: history, place and interpretation. Elsevier Science. p. 18. ISBN978-0-08-045362-0.
+
+
+
+ ^Burke, Arthur. "The Spirit of ANZAC". ANZAC Day Commemoration Committee. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Provincial Divergencies. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^Swarbrick, Nancy (September 2016). "Public holidays". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
+
+
+
+ ^"Overview – regional rugby". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. September 2010. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. The Sea Floor. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
+
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+ ^Wallis, G. P.; Trewick, S. A. (2009). "New Zealand phylogeography: evolution on a small continent". Molecular Ecology. 18 (17): 3548–3580. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04294.x. PMID19674312.
+
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+ ^Wright, Dawn; Bloomer, Sherman; MacLeod, Christopher; Taylor, Brian; Goodliffe, Andrew (2000). "Bathymetry of the Tonga Trench and Forearc: A Map Series". Marine Geophysical Researches. 21 (5): 489–512. Bibcode:2000MarGR..21..489W. doi:10.1023/A:1026514914220.
+
+
+ ^Hillstrom, Kevin; Hillstrom, Laurie Collier (2003). Australia, Oceania, and Antarctica: A Continental Overview of Environmental Issues. 3. ABC-CLIO. p. 25. ISBN9781576076941. …defined here as the continent nation of Australia, New Zealand, and twenty-two other island countries and territories sprinkled over more than 40 million square kilometres of the South Pacific.
+
+
+
+ ^ abMullan, Brett; Tait, Andrew; Thompson, Craig (March 2009). "Climate – New Zealand's climate". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
+
+
+ ^Walrond, Carl (March 2009). "Natural environment – Climate". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
+
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+ ^"Mean monthly rainfall". National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. Archived from the original(XLS) on 3 May 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
+
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+ ^"Mean monthly sunshine hours". National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. Archived from the original(XLS) on 15 October 2008. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
+
+
+ ^Cooper, R.; Millener, P. (1993). "The New Zealand biota: Historical background and new research". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 8 (12): 429. doi:10.1016/0169-5347(93)90004-9.
+
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+ ^Trewick SA, Morgan-Richards M. 2014. New Zealand Wild Life. Penguin, New Zealand.
+ ISBN9780143568896
+
+
+ ^Lindsey, Terence; Morris, Rod (2000). Collins Field Guide to New Zealand Wildlife. HarperCollins (New Zealand) Limited. p. 14. ISBN978-1-86950-300-0.
+
+
+ ^De Lange, Peter James; Sawyer, John William David & Rolfe, Jeremy (2006). New Zealand indigenous vascular plant checklist. New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. ISBN0-473-11306-6.
+
+
+
+ ^Wassilieff, Maggy (March 2009). "Lichens – Lichens in New Zealand". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
+
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+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2010) [originally published in 1966]. Mixed Broadleaf Podocarp and Kauri Forest. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
+
+
+ ^Herrera-Flores, Jorge A.; Stubbs, Thomas L.; Benton, Michael J.; Ruta, Marcello (May 2017). "Macroevolutionary patterns in Rhynchocephalia: is the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) a living fossil?". Palaeontology. 60 (3): 319–328. doi:10.1111/pala.12284.
+
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+ ^"Penguins". Department of Conservation. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^Jones, Carl (2002). "Reptiles and Amphibians". In Perrow, Martin; Davy, Anthony (eds.). Handbook of ecological restoration: Principles of Restoration. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 362. ISBN0-521-79128-6.
+
+
+
+ ^Towns, D.; Ballantine, W. (1993). "Conservation and restoration of New Zealand Island ecosystems". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 8 (12): 452. doi:10.1016/0169-5347(93)90009-E.
+
+
+ ^ abcMcLintock, Alexander, ed. (November 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Historical evolution and trade patterns. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 10 February 2011.
+
+
+ ^Evans, N. "Up From Down Under: After a Century of Socialism, Australia and New Zealand are Cutting Back Government and Freeing Their Economies". National Review. 46 (16): 47–51.
+
+
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+ ^Trade, Food Security, and Human Rights: The Rules for International Trade in Agricultural Products and the Evolving World Food Crisis. Routledge. 2016. p. 125. ISBN9781317008521.
+
+
+
+ ^Wayne Arnold (2 August 2007). "Surviving Without Subsidies". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 August 2015. ... ever since a liberal but free-market government swept to power in 1984 and essentially canceled handouts to farmers ... They went cold turkey and in the process it was very rough on their farming economy
+
+
+ ^Davenport, Sally (2004). "Panic and panacea: brain drain and science and technology human capital policy". Research Policy. 33 (4): 617–630. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2004.01.006.
+
+
+ ^Winkelmann, Rainer (2000). "The labour market performance of European immigrants in New Zealand in the 1980s and 1990s". The International Migration Review. The Center for Migration Studies of New York. 33 (1): 33–58. doi:10.2307/2676011. JSTOR2676011.
+ Journal subscription required
+
+ ^"10. Airports". Infrastructure Stocktake: Infrastructure Audit. Ministry of Economic Development. December 2005. Archived from the original on 22 May 2010. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^ abWilson, A. C. (March 2010). "Telecommunications - Telecom". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
+
+
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+ ^"Telecom separation". Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment. 14 September 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
+
+
+ ^Ranford, Jodie. "'Pakeha', Its Origin and Meaning". Māori News. Retrieved 20 February 2008. Originally the Pakeha were the early European settlers, however, today ‘Pakeha’ is used to describe any peoples of non-Maori or non-Polynesian heritage. Pakeha is not an ethnicity but rather a way to differentiate between the historical origins of our settlers, the Polynesians and the Europeans, the Maori and the other
+
+
+ ^Drinnan, John (8 July 2016). "'Maori' will remain in the name Maori Television". New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 28 August 2016. According to 2015 figures supplied by Maori TV, its two channels broadcast an average of 72 per cent Maori language content - 59 per cent on the main channel and 99 per cent on te reo.
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Elements of Carving. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Surface Patterns. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Painted Designs. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (2009) [1966]. Tattooing. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
+
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+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Textile Designs. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
+
+
+ ^Hearn, Terry (March 2009). "English – Popular culture". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 22 January 2012.
+
+
+
+ ^"Sport, Fitness and Leisure". New Zealand Official Yearbook. Statistics New Zealand. 2000. Archived from the original on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2008. Traditionally New Zealanders have excelled in rugby union, which is regarded as the national sport, and track and field athletics.
+
+
+ ^ ab"New Zealand Cuisine". New Zealand Tourism Guide. January 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
+
+
+
+ ^Petrie, Hazel (November 2008). "Kai Pākehā – introduced foods". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
+
+
+
+ ^Whaanga, Mere (June 2006). "Mātaitai – shellfish gathering". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
+
+
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+ ^"Story: Shellfish". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 29 August 2016.
+
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+ ^Burton, David (September 2013). "Cooking – Cooking methods". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
+
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+ ^Royal, Charles; Kaka-Scott, Jenny (September 2013). "Māori foods – kai Māori". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 1 September 2016.
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+ Garden, Donald (2005). Stoll, Mark (ed.). Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific: An Environmental History. Nature and Human Societies. ABC-CLIO/Greenwood. ISBN978-1-57607-868-6.
+
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+ Hay, Jennifer; Maclagan, Margaret; Gordon, Elizabeth (2008). Dialects of English: New Zealand English. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN978-0-7486-2529-1.
+
+
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+ Kennedy, Jeffrey (2007). "Leadership and Culture in New Zealand". In Chhokar, Jagdeep; Brodbeck, Felix; House, Robert (eds.). Culture and Leadership Across the World: The GLOBE Book of In-Depth Studies of 25 Societies. United States: Psychology Press. ISBN978-0-8058-5997-3.
+
+
+ New Zealand (Māori: Aotearoa[aɔˈtɛaɾɔa]) is a sovereignisland country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses—the North Island (Te Ika-a-Māui), and the South Island (Te Waipounamu)—and around 600 smaller islands. It has a total land area of 268,000 square kilometres (103,500 sq mi). New Zealand is situated some 2,000 kilometres (1,200 mi) east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres (600 mi) south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. Because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans. During its long period of isolation, New Zealand developed a distinct biodiversity of animal, fungal, and plant life. The country's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks, such as the Southern Alps, owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions. New Zealand's capital city is Wellington, while its most populous city is Auckland.
+
+ Aotearoa (pronounced /ˌaʊtɛəˈroʊ.ə/; often translated as "land of the long white cloud")[17] is the current Māori name for New Zealand. It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans, with Aotearoa originally referring to just the North Island.[18] Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands, including Te Ika-a-Māui (the fish of Māui) for the North Island and Te Waipounamu (the waters of greenstone) or Te Waka o Aoraki (the canoe of Aoraki) for the South Island.[19] Early European maps labelled the islands North (North Island), Middle (South Island) and South (Stewart Island / Rakiura).[20] In 1830, mapmakers began to use "North" and "South" on their maps to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907 this was the accepted norm.[16] The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised, and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013. This set the names as North Island or Te Ika-a-Māui, and South Island or Te Waipounamu.[21] For each island, either its English or Māori name can be used, or both can be used together.[21]
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The Māori people are most likely descended from people who emigrated from Taiwan to Melanesia and then travelled east through to the Society Islands. After a pause of 70 to 265 years, a new wave of exploration led to the discovery and settlement of New Zealand.[22]
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+ New Zealand was one of the last major landmasses settled by humans. Radiocarbon dating, evidence of deforestation[23] and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations[24] suggest New Zealand was first settled by Eastern Polynesians between 1250 and 1300,[19][25] concluding a long series of voyages through the southern Pacific islands.[26] Over the centuries that followed, these settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori. The population was divided into iwi (tribes) and hapū (subtribes) who would sometimes cooperate, sometimes compete and sometimes fight against each other.[27] At some point a group of Māori migrated to Rēkohu, now known as the Chatham Islands, where they developed their distinct Moriori culture.[28][29] The Moriori population was all but wiped out between 1835 and 1862, largely because of Taranaki Māori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s, although European diseases also contributed. In 1862 only 101 survived, and the last known full-blooded Moriori died in 1933.[30]
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Map of the New Zealand coastline as Cook charted it on his first visit in 1769–70. The track of the Endeavour is also shown.
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+ The first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel Tasman and his crew in 1642.[31] In a hostile encounter, four crew members were killed and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot.[32] Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline.[31] Following Cook, New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling, sealing and trading ships. They traded European food, metal tools, weapons and other goods for timber, Māori food, artefacts and water.[33] The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare. Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus, which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns.[34] The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840, killing 30,000–40,000 Māori.[35] From the early 19th century, Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand, eventually converting most of the Māori population.[36] The Māori population declined to around 40% of its pre-contact level during the 19th century; introduced diseases were the major factor.[37]
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+ In 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip assumed the position of Governor of the new British colony of New South Wales which according to his commission included New Zealand.[38] The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832 following a petition from northern Māori.[39] In 1835, following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry, the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection.[39] Ongoing unrest, the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company (which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for the United Kingdom and negotiate a treaty with the Māori.[40] The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840.[41] In response to the New Zealand Company's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington[42] and French settlers purchasing land in Akaroa,[43] Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840, even though copies of the Treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign.[44] With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants, particularly from the United Kingdom, began to increase.[45]
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A meeting of European and Māori inhabitants of Hawke's Bay Province. Engraving, 1863.
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+ New Zealand, still part of the colony of New South Wales, became a separate Colonyof New Zealand on 1 July 1841.[46] Armed conflict began between the Colonial government and Māori in 1843 with the Wairau Affray over land and disagreements over sovereignty. These conflicts, mainly in the North Island, saw thousands of Imperial troops and the Royal Navy come to New Zealand and became known as the New Zealand Wars. Following these armed conflicts, large amounts of Māori land was confiscated by the government to meet settler demands.[47]
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+ The colony gained a representative government in 1852 and the first Parliament met in 1854.[48] In 1856 the colony effectively became self-governing, gaining responsibility over all domestic matters other than native policy.[48] (Control over native policy was granted in the mid-1860s.[48]) Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony, premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near Cook Strait.[49] Wellington was chosen for its central location, with Parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865.[50]
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+ In 1907, at the request of the New Zealand Parliament, King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a Dominion within the British Empire,[54] reflecting its self-governing status.[55] In 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster, confirming that the British Parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand.[48]
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+ The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the Queen and the House of Representatives.[72] It also included an upper house, the Legislative Council, until this was abolished in 1950.[72] The supremacy of parliament over the Crown and other government institutions was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand.[72] The House of Representatives is democratically elected and a government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats. If no majority is formed, a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured.[72] The governor-general appoints ministers under advice from the prime minister, who is by convention the parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition.[73]Cabinet, formed by ministers and led by the prime minister, is the highest policy-making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions.[74] Members of Cabinet make major decisions collectively, and are therefore collectively responsible for the consequences of these decisions.[75]
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+ A parliamentary general election must be called no later than three years after the previous election.[76] Almost all general elections between 1853 and 1993 were held under the first-past-the-post voting system.[77] Since the 1996 election, a form of proportional representation called mixed-member proportional (MMP) has been used.[66] Under the MMP system, each person has two votes; one is for a candidate standing in the voter's electorate and the other is for a party. Since the 2014 election, there have been 71 electorates (which include seven Māori electorates in which only Māori can optionally vote),[78] and the remaining 49 of the 120 seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote, with the threshold that a party must win at least one electorate or 5% of the total party vote before it is eligible for a seat.[79]
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+ Elections since the 1930s have been dominated by two political parties, National and Labour.[77] Between March 2005 and August 2006, New Zealand became the first country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land—head of state, governor-general, prime minister, speaker and chief justice—were occupied simultaneously by women.[80] The current prime minister is Jacinda Ardern, who has been in office since 26 October 2017.[81] She is the country's third female prime minister.[82]
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+ New Zealand's judiciary, headed by the chief justice,[83] includes the Supreme Court, Court of Appeal, the High Court, and subordinate courts.[84] Judges and judicial officers are appointed non-politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain judicial independence.[66] This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions.[85]
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+ New Zealand is identified as one of the world's most stable and well-governed states.[86] As at 2017[update], the country was ranked fourth in the strength of its democratic institutions,[87] and first in government transparency and lack of corruption.[88] A 2017 Human Rights Report by the U.S. Department of State noted that the government generally respected the rights of individuals, but voiced concerns regarding the social status of the Māori population.[89] New Zealand ranks highly for civic participation in the political process, with 77% voter turnout during recent elections, compared to an OECD average of 69%.[90]
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+ Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy.[91] The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate its own political treaties and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan. On 3 September 1939 New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage proclaiming, "Where she goes, we go; where she stands, we stand."[92]
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+ In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests,[93] while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty.[94] The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War,[95] the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior,[96] disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and New Zealand's nuclear-free policy.[97][98] Despite the United States' suspension of ANZUS obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia, whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend.[99] Close political contact is maintained between the two countries, with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit, live and work in both countries without restrictions.[100] In 2013[update] there were about 650,000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia, which is equivalent to 15% of the resident population of New Zealand.[101]
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+ The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces, which had a degree of autonomy.[121] Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways, education, land sales and other policies, government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876.[122] The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays[123] and sporting rivalries.[124]
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+ Since 1876, various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government.[121][125] In 1989, the government reorganised local government into the current two-tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities.[126] The 249 municipalities[126] that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils.[127] The regional councils' role is to regulate "the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management",[126] while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage, water, local roads, building consents and other local matters.[128][129] Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils.[129] The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils, 53 district councils, and the Chatham Islands Council. While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority, it undertakes many functions of a regional council.[130]
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+ The Realm of New Zealand, one of 16 Commonwealth realms,[131] is the entire area over which the Queen of New Zealand is sovereign, and comprises New Zealand, Tokelau, the Ross Dependency, the Cook Islands and Niue.[65] The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing states in free association with New Zealand.[132][133] The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries, but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence. Tokelau is classified as a non-self-governing territory, but is administered by a council of three elders (one from each Tokelauan atoll).[134] The Ross Dependency is New Zealand's territorial claim in Antarctica, where it operates the Scott Base research facility.[135]New Zealand nationality law treats all parts of the realm equally, so most people born in New Zealand, the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau and the Ross Dependency are New Zealand citizens.[136][n 7]
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+ Aoraki / Mount Cook is the highest point of New Zealand, at 3,754 metres
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+ The Southern Alps stretch for 500 kilometres down the South Island
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+ New Zealand is long and narrow (over 1,600 kilometres (990 mi) along its north-north-east axis with a maximum width of 400 kilometres (250 mi)),[142] with about 15,000 km (9,300 mi) of coastline[143] and a total land area of 268,000 square kilometres (103,500 sq mi).[144] Because of its far-flung outlying islands and long coastline, the country has extensive marine resources. Its exclusive economic zone is one of the largest in the world, covering more than 15 times its land area.[145]
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+ The South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand. It is divided along its length by the Southern Alps.[146] There are 18 peaks over 3,000 metres (9,800 ft), the highest of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook at 3,754 metres (12,316 ft).[147]Fiordland's steep mountains and deep fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this southwestern corner of the South Island.[148] The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism.[149] The highly active Taupo Volcanic Zone has formed a large volcanic plateau, punctuated by the North Island's highest mountain, Mount Ruapehu (2,797 metres (9,177 ft)). The plateau also hosts the country's largest lake, Lake Taupo,[150] nestled in the caldera of one of the world's most active supervolcanoes.[151]
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+ New Zealand is part of a region known as Australasia, together with Australia.[155] It also forms the southwestern extremity of the geographic and ethnographic region called Polynesia.[156] The term Oceania is often used to denote the wider region encompassing the Australian continent, New Zealand and various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven-continent model.[157]
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+ New Zealand's climate is predominantly temperate maritime (Köppen: Cfb), with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 °C (50 °F) in the south to 16 °C (61 °F) in the north.[158] Historical maxima and minima are 42.4 °C (108.32 °F) in Rangiora, Canterbury and −25.6 °C (−14.08 °F) in Ranfurly, Otago.[159] Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi-arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland.[160] Of the seven largest cities, Christchurch is the driest, receiving on average only 640 millimetres (25 in) of rain per year and Wellington the wettest, receiving almost twice that amount.[161] Auckland, Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2,000 hours of sunshine. The southern and southwestern parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate, with around 1,400–1,600 hours; the northern and northeastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2,400–2,500 hours.[162] The general snow season is early June until early October, though cold snaps can occur outside this season.[163] Snowfall is common in the eastern and southern parts of the South Island and mountain areas across the country.[158]
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+ The table below lists climate normals for the warmest and coldest months in New Zealand's six largest cities. North Island cities are generally warmest in February. South Island cities are warmest in January.
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+ Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for the six largest cities of New Zealand[164]
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+ New Zealand's geographic isolation for 80 million years[165] and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country's species of animals, fungi and plants. Physical isolation has caused biological isolation, resulting in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of very distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species.[166][167] About 82% of New Zealand's indigenous vascular plants are endemic, covering 1,944 species across 65 genera.[168][169] The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand, including lichen-forming species, is not known, nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic, but one estimate suggests there are about 2,300 species of lichen-forming fungi in New Zealand[168] and 40% of these are endemic.[170] The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps, or by southern beech in cooler climates.[171] The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands, the majority of which are tussock.[172]
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+ Before the arrival of humans, an estimated 80% of the land was covered in forest, with only high alpine, wet, infertile and volcanic areas without trees.[173] Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived, with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement.[174] Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement, being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming, leaving forest occupying only 23% of the land.[175]
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The giant Haast's eagle died out when humans hunted its main prey, the moa, to extinction.
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+ Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles (tuatara, skinks and geckos), frogs,[179]spiders,[180] insects (weta)[181] and snails.[182] Some, such as the tuatara, are so unique that they have been called living fossils.[183] Three species of bats (one since extinct) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique, mouse-sized land mammal at least 16 million years old.[184][185] Marine mammals however are abundant, with almost half the world's cetaceans (whales, dolphins, and porpoises) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters.[186] Many seabirds breed in New Zealand, a third of them unique to the country.[187] More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country.[188]
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+ Since human arrival, almost half of the country's vertebrate species have become extinct, including at least fifty-one birds, three frogs, three lizards, one freshwater fish, and one bat. Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced.[177] However, New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover, including island sanctuaries, pest control, wildlife translocation, fostering, and ecological restoration of islands and other selected areas.[189][190][191][192]
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+ Historically, extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand's economy, focussing at different times on sealing, whaling, flax, gold, kauri gum, and native timber.[196] The first shipment of refrigerated meat on the Dunedin in 1882 led to the establishment of meat and dairy exports to Britain, a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand.[197] High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s.[198] In 1973, New Zealand's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Economic Community[199] and other compounding factors, such as the 1973 oil and 1979 energy crises, led to a severe economic depression.[200] Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe, and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per-capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank.[201] In the mid-1980s New Zealand deregulated its agricultural sector by phasing out subsidies over a three-year period.[202][203] Since 1984, successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring (known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia), rapidly transforming New Zealand from a protected and highly regulated economy to a liberalised free-trade economy.[204][205]
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Milford Sound is one of New Zealand's most famous tourist destinations.[206]
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+ Unemployment peaked above 10% in 1991 and 1992,[207] following the 1987 share market crash, but eventually fell to a record low (since 1986) of 3.7% in 2007 (ranking third from twenty-seven comparable OECD nations).[207] However, the global financial crisis that followed had a major impact on New Zealand, with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters, the longest recession in over thirty years,[208][209] and unemployment rising back to 7% in late 2009.[210] Unemployment rates for different age groups follow similar trends, but are consistently higher among youth. In the December 2014 quarter, the general unemployment rate was around 5.8%, while the unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 21 was 15.6%.[207] New Zealand has experienced a series of "brain drains" since the 1970s[211] that still continue today.[212] Nearly one quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas, mostly in Australia and Britain, which is the largest proportion from any developed nation.[213] In recent decades, however, a "brain gain" has brought in educated professionals from Europe and less developed countries.[214][215] Today New Zealand's economy benefits from a high level of innovation.[216]
+
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+ Trade
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+ New Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade,[217] particularly in agricultural products.[218] Exports account for 24% of its output,[143] making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns. Food products made up 55% of the value of all the country's exports in 2014; wood was the second largest earner (7%).[219] New Zealand's main trading partners, as at June 2018[update], are China (NZ$27.8b), Australia ($26.2b), the European Union ($22.9b), the United States ($17.6b), and Japan ($8.4b).[220] On 7 April 2008, New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement, the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country.[221] The service sector is the largest sector in the economy, followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction.[143]Tourism plays a significant role in the economy, contributing $12.9 billion (or 5.6%) to New Zealand's total GDP and supporting 7.5% of the total workforce in 2016.[222] International visitor arrivals are expected to increase at a rate of 5.4% annually up to 2022.[222]
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Wool has historically been one of New Zealand's major exports.
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+ Wool was New Zealand's major agricultural export during the late 19th century.[196] Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues,[196] but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities[223] and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers.[224] In contrast dairy farming increased, with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007,[225] to become New Zealand's largest export earner.[226] In the year to June 2018, dairy products accounted for 17.7% ($14.1 billion) of total exports,[220] and the country's largest company, Fonterra, controls almost one-third of the international dairy trade.[227] Other exports in 2017-18 were meat (8.8%), wood and wood products (6.2%), fruit (3.6%), machinery (2.2%) and wine (2.1%).[220]New Zealand's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy, the number of vineyards doubling over the same period,[228] overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007.[229][230]
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+ The provision of water supply and sanitation is generally of good quality. Regional authorities provide water abstraction, treatment and distribution infrastructure to most developed areas.[232][233]
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+ New Zealand's transport network comprises 94,000 kilometres (58,410 mi) of roads, including 199 kilometres (124 mi) of motorways,[234] and 4,128 kilometres (2,565 mi) of railway lines.[143] Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services, although the private car is the predominant mode of transport.[235] The railways were privatised in 1993, but were re-nationalised by the government in stages between 2004 and 2008. The state-owned enterprise KiwiRail now operates the railways, with the exception of commuter services in Auckland and Wellington which are operated by Transdev[236] and Metlink,[237] respectively. Railways run the length of the country, although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers.[238] Most international visitors arrive via air[239] and New Zealand has six international airports, but currently[update] only the Auckland and Christchurch airports connect directly with countries other than Australia or Fiji.[240]
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+ The 2013 New Zealand census enumerated a resident population of 4,242,048, an increase of 5.3% over the 2006 figure.[245][n 8] As of September 2019, the total population has risen to an estimated 4,933,210.[5]
+
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+ New Zealand is a predominantly urban country, with 73.0% of the population living in the seventeen main urban areas (i.e. population 30,000 or greater) and 55.1% living in the four largest cities of Auckland, Christchurch, Wellington, and Hamilton.[247] New Zealand cities generally rank highly on international livability measures. For instance, in 2016 Auckland was ranked the world's third most liveable city and Wellington the twelfth by the Mercer Quality of Living Survey.[248]
+
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+ Life expectancy for New Zealanders in 2012 was 84 years for females, and 80.2 years for males.[249] Life expectancy at birth is forecast to increase from 80 years to 85 years in 2050 and infant mortality is expected to decline.[250] New Zealand's fertility rate of 2.1 is relatively high for a developed country, and natural births account for a significant proportion of population growth. Consequently, the country has a young population compared to most industrialised nations, with 20% of New Zealanders being 14 years old or younger.[143] In 2018 the median age of the New Zealand population was 38.1 years.[251] By 2050 the median age is projected to rise to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older to rise from 18% to 29%.[250] In 2008 the leading cause of premature death was cancer, at 29.8%, followed by ischaemic heart disease, 19.7%, and then cerebrovascular disease, 9.2%.[252] As of 2016[update], total expenditure on health care (including private sector spending) is 9.2% of GDP.[253]
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Pedestrians on Queen Street in Auckland, an ethnically diverse city
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+ In the 2013 census, 74.0% of New Zealand residents identified ethnically as European, and 14.9% as Māori. Other major ethnic groups include Asian (11.8%) and Pacific peoples (7.4%), two-thirds of whom live in the Auckland Region.[255][n 3] The population has become more diverse in recent decades: in 1961, the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92% European and 7% Māori, with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1%.[256]
+
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+ While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander, the informal "Kiwi" is commonly used both internationally[257] and by locals.[258] The Māori loanword Pākehā has been used to refer to New Zealanders of European descent, although others reject this appellation.[259][260] The word Pākehā today is increasingly used to refer to all non-Polynesian New Zealanders.[261]
+
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+ The Māori were the first people to reach New Zealand, followed by the early European settlers. Following colonisation, immigrants were predominantly from Britain, Ireland and Australia because of restrictive policies similar to the White Australia policy.[262] There was also significant Dutch, Dalmatian,[263] German, and Italian immigration, together with indirect European immigration through Australia, North America, South America and South Africa.[264][265] Net migration increased after the Second World War; in the 1970s and 1980s policies were relaxed and immigration from Asia was promoted.[265][266] In 2009–10, an annual target of 45,000–50,000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service—more than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents.[267] Just over 25% of New Zealand's population was born overseas, with the majority (52%) living in the Auckland Region. The United Kingdom remains the largest source of New Zealand's overseas population, with a quarter of all overseas-born New Zealanders born there; other major sources of New Zealand's overseas-born population are China, India, Australia, South Africa, Fiji and Samoa.[268] The number of fee-paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s, with more than 20,000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002.[269]
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Speakers of Māori according to the 2013 census[270]
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+ Less than 5%
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+ More than 5%
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+ More than 10%
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+ More than 20%
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+ More than 30%
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+ More than 40%
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+ More than 50%
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+ English is the predominant language in New Zealand, spoken by 96.1% of the population.[271]New Zealand English is similar to Australian English and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart.[272] The most prominent differences between the New Zealand English dialect and other English dialects are the shifts in the short front vowels: the short-"i" sound (as in "kit") has centralised towards the schwa sound (the "a" in "comma" and "about"); the short-"e" sound (as in "dress") has moved towards the short-"i" sound; and the short-"a" sound (as in "trap") has moved to the short-"e" sound.[273]
+
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+ After the Second World War, Māori were discouraged from speaking their own language (te reo Māori) in schools and workplaces and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas.[274] It has recently undergone a process of revitalisation,[275] being declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 1987,[276] and is spoken by 3.7% of the population.[271][n 9] There are now Māori language immersion schools and two television channels that broadcast predominantly in Māori.[278]Many places have both their Māori and English names officially recognised.[279]
+
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+ As recorded in the 2013 census,[271]Samoan is the most widely spoken non-official language (2.2%),[n 10] followed by Hindi (1.7%), "Northern Chinese" (including Mandarin, 1.3%) and French (1.2%). 20,235 people (0.5%) reported the ability to use New Zealand Sign Language. It was declared one of New Zealand's official languages in 2006.[280]
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A Rātana church on a hill near Raetihi. The two-tower construction is characteristic of Rātana buildings.
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+ Christianity is the predominant religion in New Zealand, although its society is among the most secular in the world.[281][282] In the 2018 census, 51.4% of the population identified with one or more religions, including 38.6% identifying as Christians. Another 48.6% indicated that they had no religion.[n 11][283] The main Christian denominations are, by number of adherents, Roman Catholicism (10.1%), Anglicanism (6.8%), Presbyterianism (5.5%) and "Christian not further defined" (i.e. people identifying as Christian but not stating the denomination, 6.6%).[283] The Māori-based Ringatū and Rātana religions (1.3%) are also Christian in origin.[284][285] Immigration and demographic change in recent decades has contributed to the growth of minority religions,[286] such as Hinduism (2.6%), Buddhism (1.1%), Islam (1.3%) and Sikhism (0.5%).[284] The Auckland Region exhibited the greatest religious diversity.[284]
+
+ Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16, with the majority attending from the age of 5.[287] There are 13 school years and attending state (public) schools is free to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents from a person's 5th birthday to the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday.[288] New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99%,[143] and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification.[287] There are five types of government-owned tertiary institutions: universities, colleges of education, polytechnics, specialist colleges, and wānanga,[289] in addition to private training establishments.[290] In the adult population 14.2% have a bachelor's degree or higher, 30.4% have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22.4% have no formal qualification.[291] The OECD's Programme for International Student Assessment ranks New Zealand's education system as the seventh best in the world, with students performing exceptionally well in reading, mathematics and science.[292]
+
Late 20th-century house-post depicting the navigator Kupe fighting two sea creatures
+
+
+
+
+ Early Māori adapted the tropically based east Polynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment, eventually developing their own distinctive culture. Social organisation was largely communal with families (whānau), subtribes (hapū) and tribes (iwi) ruled by a chief (rangatira), whose position was subject to the community's approval.[293] The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Māori culture,[294][295] particularly with the introduction of Christianity.[296] However, Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their identity, and Māori kinship roles resemble those of other Polynesian peoples.[297] More recently American, Australian, Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand. Non-Māori Polynesian cultures are also apparent, with Pasifika, the world's largest Polynesian festival, now an annual event in Auckland.[298]
+
+
+ The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged, industrious problem solvers.[299] Modesty was expected and enforced through the "tall poppy syndrome", where high achievers received harsh criticism.[300] At the time New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country.[301] From the early 20th century until the late 1960s, Māori culture was suppressed by the attempted assimilation of Māori into British New Zealanders.[274] In the 1960s, as tertiary education became more available and cities expanded[302] urban culture began to dominate.[303] However, rural imagery and themes are common in New Zealand's art, literature and media.[304]
+
+
+ New Zealand's national symbols are influenced by natural, historical, and Māori sources. The silver fern is an emblem appearing on army insignia and sporting team uniforms.[305] Certain items of popular culture thought to be unique to New Zealand are called "Kiwiana".[305]
+
+ As part of the resurgence of Māori culture, the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practised and Māori artists are increasing in number and influence.[306] Most Māori carvings feature human figures, generally with three fingers and either a natural-looking, detailed head or a grotesque head.[307] Surface patterns consisting of spirals, ridges, notches and fish scales decorate most carvings.[308] The pre-eminent Māori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses (wharenui) decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations. These buildings were originally designed to be constantly rebuilt, changing and adapting to different whims or needs.[309]
+
+
+ Māori decorated the white wood of buildings, canoes and cenotaphs using red (a mixture of red ochre and shark fat) and black (made from soot) paint and painted pictures of birds, reptiles and other designs on cave walls.[310] Māori tattoos (moko) consisting of coloured soot mixed with gum were cut into the flesh with a bone chisel.[311] Since European arrival paintings and photographs have been dominated by landscapes, originally not as works of art but as factual portrayals of New Zealand.[312] Portraits of Māori were also common, with early painters often portraying them as "noble savages", exotic beauties or friendly natives.[312] The country's isolation delayed the influence of European artistic trends allowing local artists to develop their own distinctive style of regionalism.[313] During the 1960s and 1970s many artists combined traditional Māori and Western techniques, creating unique art forms.[314] New Zealand art and craft has gradually achieved an international audience, with exhibitions in the Venice Biennale in 2001 and the "Paradise Now" exhibition in New York in 2004.[306][315]
+
+ Māori cloaks are made of fine flax fibre and patterned with black, red and white triangles, diamonds and other geometric shapes.[316]Greenstone was fashioned into earrings and necklaces, with the most well-known design being the hei-tiki, a distorted human figure sitting cross-legged with its head tilted to the side.[317] Europeans brought English fashion etiquette to New Zealand, and until the 1950s most people dressed up for social occasions.[318] Standards have since relaxed and New Zealand fashion has received a reputation for being casual, practical and lacklustre.[319][320] However, the local fashion industry has grown significantly since 2000, doubling exports and increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels, with some labels gaining international recognition.[320]
+
+ Māori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas, and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form.[321] Most early English literature was obtained from Britain and it was not until the 1950s when local publishing outlets increased that New Zealand literature started to become widely known.[322] Although still largely influenced by global trends (modernism) and events (the Great Depression), writers in the 1930s began to develop stories increasingly focused on their experiences in New Zealand. During this period literature changed from a journalistic activity to a more academic pursuit.[323] Participation in the world wars gave some New Zealand writers a new perspective on New Zealand culture and with the post-war expansion of universities local literature flourished.[324] Dunedin is a UNESCO City of Literature.[325]
+
+ New Zealand music has been influenced by blues, jazz, country, rock and roll and hip hop, with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation.[326] Māori developed traditional chants and songs from their ancient Southeast Asian origins, and after centuries of isolation created a unique "monotonous" and "doleful" sound.[327] Flutes and trumpets were used as musical instruments[328] or as signalling devices during war or special occasions.[329] Early settlers brought over their ethnic music, with brass bands and choral music being popular, and musicians began touring New Zealand in the 1860s.[330][331]Pipe bands became widespread during the early 20th century.[332] The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States.[326] Some artists release Māori language songs and the Māori tradition-based art of kapa haka (song and dance) has made a resurgence.[333] The New Zealand Music Awards are held annually by Recorded Music NZ; the awards were first held in 1965 by Reckitt & Colman as the Loxene Golden Disc awards.[334] Recorded Music NZ also publishes the country's official weekly record charts.[335]
+
A haka performed by the national rugby union team before a game. The haka is a challenge with vigorous movements and stamping of the feet.
+
+
+
+
+ Most of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have British origins.[346]Rugby union is considered the national sport[347] and attracts the most spectators.[348]Golf, netball, tennis and cricket have the highest rates of adult participation, while netball, rugby union and football (soccer) are particularly popular among young people.[348][349] Around 54% of New Zealand adolescents participate in sports for their school.[349] Victorious rugby tours to Australia and the United Kingdom in the late 1880s and the early 1900s played an early role in instilling a national identity.[350]Horseracing was also a popular spectator sport and became part of the "Rugby, Racing and Beer" culture during the 1960s.[351] Māori participation in European sports was particularly evident in rugby and the country's team performs a haka, a traditional Māori challenge, before international matches.[352] New Zealand is known for its extreme sports, adventure tourism[353] and strong mountaineering tradition, as seen in the success of notable New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary.[354][355] Other outdoor pursuits such as cycling, fishing, swimming, running, tramping, canoeing, hunting, snowsports, surfing and sailing are also popular.[356] The Polynesian sport of waka ama racing has experienced a resurgence of interest in New Zealand since the 1980s.[357]
+
+ The national cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim, incorporating the native Māori cuisine and diverse culinary traditions introduced by settlers and immigrants from Europe, Polynesia and Asia.[363] New Zealand yields produce from land and sea—most crops and livestock, such as maize, potatoes and pigs, were gradually introduced by the early European settlers.[364] Distinctive ingredients or dishes include lamb, salmon, kōura (crayfish),[365]dredge oysters, whitebait, pāua (abalone), mussels, scallops, pipis and tuatua (both are types of New Zealand shellfish),[366]kūmara (sweet potato), kiwifruit, tamarillo and pavlova (considered a national dish).[367][363] A hāngi is a traditional Māori method of cooking food using heated rocks buried in a pit oven. After European colonisation, Māori began cooking with pots and ovens and the hāngi was used less frequently, although it is still used for formal occasions such as tangihanga.[368]
+
+ ^"God Save the Queen" is officially a national anthem but is generally used only on regal and viceregal occasions.[1]
+
+
+ ^English is a de facto official language due to its widespread use.[2]
+
+
+ ^ abEthnicity figures add to more than 100% as people could choose more than one ethnic group.
+
+
+ ^The proportion of New Zealand's area (excluding estuaries) covered by rivers, lakes and ponds, based on figures from the New Zealand Land Cover Database,[4] is (357526 + 81936) / (26821559 – 92499–26033 – 19216) = 1.6%. If estuarine open water, mangroves, and herbaceous saline vegetation are included, the figure is 2.2%.
+
+
+ ^The Chatham Islands have a separate time zone, 45 minutes ahead of the rest of New Zealand.
+
+
+ ^Clocks are advanced by an hour from the last Sunday in September until the first Sunday in April.[9] Daylight saving time is also observed in the Chatham Islands, 45 minutes ahead of NZDT.
+
+
+ ^A person born on or after 1 January 2006 acquires New Zealand citizenship at birth only if at least one parent is a New Zealand citizen or permanent resident. People born on or before 31 December 2005 acquired citizenship at birth (jus soli).[137]
+
+
+ ^The population is increasing at a rate of 1.4–2.0% per year and is projected to rise to 5.01–5.51 million in 2025.[246]
+
+
+ ^In 2015, 55% of Māori adults (aged 15 years and over) reported knowledge of te reo Māori. Of these speakers, 64% use Māori at home and 50,000 can speak the language "very well" or "well".[277]
+
+
+ ^Of the 86,403 people that replied they spoke Samoan, 51,336 lived in the Auckland Region.
+
+
+ ^Religion percentages may not add to 100% as people could claim multiple religions or object to answering the question.
+
+ ^New Zealand Government (21 December 2007). International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Fifth Periodic Report of the Government of New Zealand(PDF) (Report). p. 89. Archived from the original(PDF) on 24 January 2015. Retrieved 18 November 2015. In addition to the Māori language, New Zealand Sign Language is also an official language of New Zealand. The New Zealand Sign Language Act 2006 permits the use of NZSL in legal proceedings, facilitates competency standards for its interpretation and guides government departments in its promotion and use. English, the medium for teaching and learning in most schools, is a de facto official language by virtue of its widespread use. For these reasons, these three languages have special mention in the New Zealand Curriculum.
+
+
+ ^ ab"Population clock". Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 14 April 2016.
+ The population estimate shown is automatically calculated daily at 00:00 UTC and is based on data obtained from the population clock on the date shown in the citation.
+
+
+ ^ abcde"New Zealand". International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 9 October 2018.
+
+
+ ^There is no official all-numeric date format for New Zealand, but government recommendations generally follow Australian date and time notation. See "The Govt.nz style guide", New Zealand Government, 9 December 2016, retrieved 7 March 2019Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |website= (help)
+ .
+
+ ^Wilson, John (September 2007). "Tasman's achievement". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 16 February 2008.
+
+
+
+ ^Mackay, Duncan (1986). "The Search For The Southern Land". In Fraser, B (ed.). The New Zealand Book Of Events. Auckland: Reed Methuen. pp. 52–54.
+
+
+ ^Ballara, Angela (1998). Iwi: The Dynamics of Māori Tribal Organisation from c. 1769 to c. 1945 (1st ed.). Wellington: Victoria University Press. ISBN9780864733283.
+
+
+
+ ^Clark, Ross (1994). "Moriori and Māori: The Linguistic Evidence". In Sutton, Douglas (ed.). The Origins of the First New Zealanders. Auckland: Auckland University Press. pp. 123–135.
+
+
+
+ ^Davis, Denise (September 2007). "The impact of new arrivals". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 30 April 2010.
+
+
+ ^Brailsford, Barry (1972). Arrows of Plague. Wellington: Hick Smith and Sons. p. 35. ISBN0-456-01060-2.
+
+
+
+ ^Wagstrom, Thor (2005). "Broken Tongues and Foreign Hearts". In Brock, Peggy (ed.). Indigenous Peoples and Religious Change. Boston: Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 71 and 73. ISBN978-90-04-13899-5.
+
+
+
+ ^Lange, Raeburn (1999). May the people live: a history of Māori health development 1900–1920. Auckland University Press. p. 18. ISBN978-1-86940-214-3.
+
+
+
+ ^"A Nation sub-divided". Australian Heritage. Heritage Australia Publishing. 2011. Archived from the original on 28 February 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2014.
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Sir George Gipps. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Settlement from 1840 to 1852. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^Foster, Bernard (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. McLintock, Alexander (ed.). Akaroa, French Settlement At. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
+
+
+ ^"Royal Titles Act 1974". New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. February 1974. Section 1. Retrieved 8 January 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^"Constitution Act 1986". New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. 1 January 1987. Section 2.1. Retrieved 15 July 2018. The Sovereign in right of New Zealand is the head of State of New Zealand, and shall be known by the royal style and titles proclaimed from time to time.Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
+
+
+ ^"New Zealand". OECD Better Life Index. 2016. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
+
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. External Relations. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^"Michael Joseph Savage". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. July 2010. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
+
+
+ ^Ayson, Robert (2007). "New Zealand Defence and Security Policy,1990–2005". In Alley, Roderic (ed.). New Zealand In World Affairs, Volume IV: 1990–2005. Wellington: Victoria University Press. p. 132. ISBN978-0-86473-548-5.
+
+
+
+ ^"The Battle for Crete". New Zealand History. Ministry for Culture and Heritage. May 2010. Retrieved 9 January 2011.
+
+
+ ^Prideaux, Bruce (2007). Ryan, Chris (ed.). Battlefield tourism: history, place and interpretation. Elsevier Science. p. 18. ISBN978-0-08-045362-0.
+
+
+
+ ^Burke, Arthur. "The Spirit of ANZAC". ANZAC Day Commemoration Committee. Archived from the original on 26 December 2010. Retrieved 11 January 2011.
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Provincial Divergencies. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 7 January 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^Swarbrick, Nancy (September 2016). "Public holidays". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 25 June 2017.
+
+
+
+ ^"Overview – regional rugby". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. September 2010. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. The Sea Floor. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 13 January 2011.
+
+
+ ^Wallis, G. P.; Trewick, S. A. (2009). "New Zealand phylogeography: evolution on a small continent". Molecular Ecology. 18 (17): 3548–3580. doi:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04294.x. PMID19674312.
+
+
+
+ ^Wright, Dawn; Bloomer, Sherman; MacLeod, Christopher; Taylor, Brian; Goodliffe, Andrew (2000). "Bathymetry of the Tonga Trench and Forearc: A Map Series". Marine Geophysical Researches. 21 (5): 489–512. Bibcode:2000MarGR..21..489W. doi:10.1023/A:1026514914220.
+
+
+ ^Hillstrom, Kevin; Hillstrom, Laurie Collier (2003). Australia, Oceania, and Antarctica: A Continental Overview of Environmental Issues. 3. ABC-CLIO. p. 25. ISBN9781576076941. …defined here as the continent nation of Australia, New Zealand, and twenty-two other island countries and territories sprinkled over more than 40 million square kilometres of the South Pacific.
+
+
+
+ ^ abMullan, Brett; Tait, Andrew; Thompson, Craig (March 2009). "Climate – New Zealand's climate". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
+
+
+ ^Walrond, Carl (March 2009). "Natural environment – Climate". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^"Mean monthly rainfall". National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. Archived from the original(XLS) on 3 May 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^"Mean monthly sunshine hours". National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research. Archived from the original(XLS) on 15 October 2008. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
+
+
+ ^Cooper, R.; Millener, P. (1993). "The New Zealand biota: Historical background and new research". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 8 (12): 429. doi:10.1016/0169-5347(93)90004-9.
+
+
+
+ ^Trewick SA, Morgan-Richards M. 2014. New Zealand Wild Life. Penguin, New Zealand.
+ ISBN9780143568896
+
+
+ ^Lindsey, Terence; Morris, Rod (2000). Collins Field Guide to New Zealand Wildlife. HarperCollins (New Zealand) Limited. p. 14. ISBN978-1-86950-300-0.
+
+
+ ^De Lange, Peter James; Sawyer, John William David & Rolfe, Jeremy (2006). New Zealand indigenous vascular plant checklist. New Zealand Plant Conservation Network. ISBN0-473-11306-6.
+
+
+
+ ^Wassilieff, Maggy (March 2009). "Lichens – Lichens in New Zealand". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 16 January 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2010) [originally published in 1966]. Mixed Broadleaf Podocarp and Kauri Forest. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
+
+
+ ^Herrera-Flores, Jorge A.; Stubbs, Thomas L.; Benton, Michael J.; Ruta, Marcello (May 2017). "Macroevolutionary patterns in Rhynchocephalia: is the tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus) a living fossil?". Palaeontology. 60 (3): 319–328. doi:10.1111/pala.12284.
+
+
+ ^"Penguins". Department of Conservation. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^Jones, Carl (2002). "Reptiles and Amphibians". In Perrow, Martin; Davy, Anthony (eds.). Handbook of ecological restoration: Principles of Restoration. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 362. ISBN0-521-79128-6.
+
+
+
+ ^Towns, D.; Ballantine, W. (1993). "Conservation and restoration of New Zealand Island ecosystems". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 8 (12): 452. doi:10.1016/0169-5347(93)90009-E.
+
+
+ ^ abcMcLintock, Alexander, ed. (November 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Historical evolution and trade patterns. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 10 February 2011.
+
+
+ ^Evans, N. "Up From Down Under: After a Century of Socialism, Australia and New Zealand are Cutting Back Government and Freeing Their Economies". National Review. 46 (16): 47–51.
+
+
+
+ ^Trade, Food Security, and Human Rights: The Rules for International Trade in Agricultural Products and the Evolving World Food Crisis. Routledge. 2016. p. 125. ISBN9781317008521.
+
+
+
+ ^Wayne Arnold (2 August 2007). "Surviving Without Subsidies". The New York Times. Retrieved 11 August 2015. ... ever since a liberal but free-market government swept to power in 1984 and essentially canceled handouts to farmers ... They went cold turkey and in the process it was very rough on their farming economy
+
+
+ ^Davenport, Sally (2004). "Panic and panacea: brain drain and science and technology human capital policy". Research Policy. 33 (4): 617–630. doi:10.1016/j.respol.2004.01.006.
+
+
+ ^Winkelmann, Rainer (2000). "The labour market performance of European immigrants in New Zealand in the 1980s and 1990s". The International Migration Review. The Center for Migration Studies of New York. 33 (1): 33–58. doi:10.2307/2676011. JSTOR2676011.
+ Journal subscription required
+
+ ^"10. Airports". Infrastructure Stocktake: Infrastructure Audit. Ministry of Economic Development. December 2005. Archived from the original on 22 May 2010. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^ abWilson, A. C. (March 2010). "Telecommunications - Telecom". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
+
+
+
+ ^"Telecom separation". Ministry of Business, Innovation and Employment. 14 September 2015. Retrieved 11 August 2017.
+
+
+ ^Ranford, Jodie. "'Pakeha', Its Origin and Meaning". Māori News. Retrieved 20 February 2008. Originally the Pakeha were the early European settlers, however, today ‘Pakeha’ is used to describe any peoples of non-Maori or non-Polynesian heritage. Pakeha is not an ethnicity but rather a way to differentiate between the historical origins of our settlers, the Polynesians and the Europeans, the Maori and the other
+
+
+ ^Drinnan, John (8 July 2016). "'Maori' will remain in the name Maori Television". New Zealand Herald. Retrieved 28 August 2016. According to 2015 figures supplied by Maori TV, its two channels broadcast an average of 72 per cent Maori language content - 59 per cent on the main channel and 99 per cent on te reo.
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Elements of Carving. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Surface Patterns. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Painted Designs. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
+
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (2009) [1966]. Tattooing. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
+
+
+ ^McLintock, Alexander, ed. (April 2009) [originally published in 1966]. Textile Designs. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
+
+
+ ^Hearn, Terry (March 2009). "English – Popular culture". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 22 January 2012.
+
+
+
+ ^"Sport, Fitness and Leisure". New Zealand Official Yearbook. Statistics New Zealand. 2000. Archived from the original on 7 June 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2008. Traditionally New Zealanders have excelled in rugby union, which is regarded as the national sport, and track and field athletics.
+
+
+ ^ ab"New Zealand Cuisine". New Zealand Tourism Guide. January 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2016.
+
+
+
+ ^Petrie, Hazel (November 2008). "Kai Pākehā – introduced foods". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
+
+
+
+ ^Whaanga, Mere (June 2006). "Mātaitai – shellfish gathering". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 27 June 2017.
+
+
+
+ ^"Story: Shellfish". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 29 August 2016.
+
+
+
+ ^Burton, David (September 2013). "Cooking – Cooking methods". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 11 December 2016.
+
+
+
+ ^Royal, Charles; Kaka-Scott, Jenny (September 2013). "Māori foods – kai Māori". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 1 September 2016.
+
+
+ Garden, Donald (2005). Stoll, Mark (ed.). Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific: An Environmental History. Nature and Human Societies. ABC-CLIO/Greenwood. ISBN978-1-57607-868-6.
+
+
+
+ Hay, Jennifer; Maclagan, Margaret; Gordon, Elizabeth (2008). Dialects of English: New Zealand English. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN978-0-7486-2529-1.
+
+
+
+ Kennedy, Jeffrey (2007). "Leadership and Culture in New Zealand". In Chhokar, Jagdeep; Brodbeck, Felix; House, Robert (eds.). Culture and Leadership Across the World: The GLOBE Book of In-Depth Studies of 25 Societies. United States: Psychology Press. ISBN978-0-8058-5997-3.
+
+
+ In mathematics, a Hermitian matrix (or self-adjoint matrix) is a complexsquare matrix that is equal to its own conjugate transpose—that is, the element in the i-th row and j-th column is equal to the complex conjugate of the element in the j-th row and i-th column, for all indices i and j:
+
+
+
+
+
+ or in matrix form:
+
+
+
+ .
+
+
+
+ Hermitian matrices can be understood as the complex extension of real symmetric matrices.
+
+
+ If the conjugate transpose of a matrix is denoted by , then the Hermitian property can be written concisely as
+
+
+
+
+
+ Hermitian matrices are named after Charles Hermite, who demonstrated in 1855 that matrices of this form share a property with real symmetric matrices of always having real eigenvalues. Other, equivalent notations in common use are , although note that in quantum mechanics, typically means the complex conjugate only, and not the conjugate transpose.
+
+ Here, we offer another useful Hermitian matrix using an abstract example. If a square matrix equals the multiplication of a matrix and its conjugate transpose, that is, , then is a Hermitian positive semi-definite matrix. Furthermore, if is row full-rank, then is positive definite.
+
+ This section needs expansion with: Proof of the properties requested. You can help by adding to it. (February 2018)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
The entries on the main diagonal (top left to bottom right) of any Hermitian matrix are real.
+
+
+
+
+ Proof: By definition of the Hermitian matrix
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ so for i = j the above follows.
+
+
+ Only the main diagonal entries are necessarily real; Hermitian matrices can have arbitrary complex-valued entries in their off-diagonal elements, as long as diagonally-opposite entries are complex conjugates.
+
+
+
+
A matrix that has only real entries is Hermitian if and only if it is symmetric. A real and symmetric matrix is simply a special case of a Hermitian matrix.
+
+
+
+
+ Proof: by definition. Thus Hij = Hji (matrix symmetry) if and only if (Hij is real).
+
+
+
+
Every Hermitian matrix is a normal matrix. That is to say, AAH = AHA.
+
+
+
+
+ Proof:A = AH, so AAH = AA = AHA.
+
+
+
+
The finite-dimensional spectral theorem says that any Hermitian matrix can be diagonalized by a unitary matrix, and that the resulting diagonal matrix has only real entries. This implies that all eigenvalues of a Hermitian matrix A with dimension n are real, and that A has n linearly independent eigenvectors. Moreover, a Hermitian matrix has orthogonal eigenvectors for distinct eigenvalues. Even if there are degenerate eigenvalues, it is always possible to find an orthogonal basis of ℂn consisting of n eigenvectors of A.
+
+
+
+
The sum of any two Hermitian matrices is Hermitian.
+
+
+
+
+ Proof: as claimed.
+
+
+
+
The inverse of an invertible Hermitian matrix is Hermitian as well.
+
+
+
+
+ Proof: If , then , so as claimed.
+
+
+
+
The product of two Hermitian matrices A and B is Hermitian if and only if AB = BA.
+
+ Thus An is Hermitian if A is Hermitian and n is an integer.
+
+
+
+
+
The Hermitian complex n-by-n matrices do not form a vector space over the complex numbers, ℂ, since the identity matrix In is Hermitian, but iIn is not. However the complex Hermitian matrices do form a vector space over the real numbersℝ. In the 2n2-dimensional vector space of complex n × n matrices over ℝ, the complex Hermitian matrices form a subspace of dimension n2. If Ejk denotes the n-by-n matrix with a 1 in the j,k position and zeros elsewhere, a basis (orthonormal w.r.t. the Frobenius inner product) can be described as follows:
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+ together with the set of matrices of the form
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+ and the matrices
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+ where denotes the complex number , called the imaginary unit.
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+ where are the eigenvalues on the diagonal of the diagonal matrix .
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The determinant of a Hermitian matrix is real:
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+ Proof:
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+ Therefore if .
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+ (Alternatively, the determinant is the product of the matrix's eigenvalues, and as mentioned before, the eigenvalues of a Hermitian matrix are real.)
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+
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+ Decomposition into Hermitian and skew-Hermitian[edit]
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+
+ Additional facts related to Hermitian matrices include:
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The sum of a square matrix and its conjugate transpose is Hermitian.
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The difference of a square matrix and its conjugate transpose is skew-Hermitian (also called antihermitian). This implies that the commutator of two Hermitian matrices is skew-Hermitian.
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An arbitrary square matrix C can be written as the sum of a Hermitian matrix A and a skew-Hermitian matrix B. This is known as the Toeplitz decomposition of C.[3]:p. 7
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+ In mathematics, for a given complex Hermitian matrix M and nonzero vector x, the Rayleigh quotient[4], is defined as:[3]:p. 234[5]
+
+
+
+ .
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+ For real matrices and vectors, the condition of being Hermitian reduces to that of being symmetric, and the conjugate transpose to the usual transpose . Note that for any non-zero real scalar . Also, recall that a Hermitian (or real symmetric) matrix has real eigenvalues.
+
+
+ It can be shown[citation needed] that, for a given matrix, the Rayleigh quotient reaches its minimum value (the smallest eigenvalue of M) when is (the corresponding eigenvector). Similarly, and .
+
+
+ The Rayleigh quotient is used in the min-max theorem to get exact values of all eigenvalues. It is also used in eigenvalue algorithms to obtain an eigenvalue approximation from an eigenvector approximation. Specifically, this is the basis for Rayleigh quotient iteration.
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+ The range of the Rayleigh quotient (for matrix that is not necessarily Hermitian) is called a numerical range (or spectrum in functional analysis). When the matrix is Hermitian, the numerical range is equal to the spectral norm. Still in functional analysis, is known as the spectral radius. In the context of C*-algebras or algebraic quantum mechanics, the function that to M associates the Rayleigh quotient R(M, x) for a fixed x and M varying through the algebra would be referred to as "vector state" of the algebra.
+
+ In mathematics, a Hermitian matrix (or self-adjoint matrix) is a complexsquare matrix that is equal to its own conjugate transpose—that is, the element in the i-th row and j-th column is equal to the complex conjugate of the element in the j-th row and i-th column, for all indices i and j:
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+ or in matrix form:
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+ .
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+ Hermitian matrices can be understood as the complex extension of real symmetric matrices.
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+ If the conjugate transpose of a matrix is denoted by , then the Hermitian property can be written concisely as
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+ Hermitian matrices are named after Charles Hermite, who demonstrated in 1855 that matrices of this form share a property with real symmetric matrices of always having real eigenvalues. Other, equivalent notations in common use are , although note that in quantum mechanics, typically means the complex conjugate only, and not the conjugate transpose.
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+ Here, we offer another useful Hermitian matrix using an abstract example. If a square matrix equals the multiplication of a matrix and its conjugate transpose, that is, , then is a Hermitian positive semi-definite matrix. Furthermore, if is row full-rank, then is positive definite.
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+ This section needs expansion with: Proof of the properties requested. You can help by adding to it. (February 2018)
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The entries on the main diagonal (top left to bottom right) of any Hermitian matrix are real.
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+ Proof: By definition of the Hermitian matrix
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+
+
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+ so for i = j the above follows.
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+ Only the main diagonal entries are necessarily real; Hermitian matrices can have arbitrary complex-valued entries in their off-diagonal elements, as long as diagonally-opposite entries are complex conjugates.
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A matrix that has only real entries is Hermitian if and only if it is symmetric. A real and symmetric matrix is simply a special case of a Hermitian matrix.
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+ Proof: by definition. Thus Hij = Hji (matrix symmetry) if and only if (Hij is real).
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Every Hermitian matrix is a normal matrix. That is to say, AAH = AHA.
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+ Proof:A = AH, so AAH = AA = AHA.
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The finite-dimensional spectral theorem says that any Hermitian matrix can be diagonalized by a unitary matrix, and that the resulting diagonal matrix has only real entries. This implies that all eigenvalues of a Hermitian matrix A with dimension n are real, and that A has n linearly independent eigenvectors. Moreover, a Hermitian matrix has orthogonal eigenvectors for distinct eigenvalues. Even if there are degenerate eigenvalues, it is always possible to find an orthogonal basis of ℂn consisting of n eigenvectors of A.
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The sum of any two Hermitian matrices is Hermitian.
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+ Proof: as claimed.
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The inverse of an invertible Hermitian matrix is Hermitian as well.
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+ Proof: If , then , so as claimed.
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The product of two Hermitian matrices A and B is Hermitian if and only if AB = BA.
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+ Thus An is Hermitian if A is Hermitian and n is an integer.
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For an arbitrary complex valued vector v the product is real because of . This is especially important in quantum physics where Hermitian matrices are operators that measure properties of a system e.g. total spin which have to be real.
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+
The Hermitian complex n-by-n matrices do not form a vector space over the complex numbers, ℂ, since the identity matrix In is Hermitian, but iIn is not. However the complex Hermitian matrices do form a vector space over the real numbersℝ. In the 2n2-dimensional vector space of complex n × n matrices over ℝ, the complex Hermitian matrices form a subspace of dimension n2. If Ejk denotes the n-by-n matrix with a 1 in the j,k position and zeros elsewhere, a basis (orthonormal w.r.t. the Frobenius inner product) can be described as follows:
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ together with the set of matrices of the form
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ and the matrices
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ where denotes the complex number , called the imaginary unit.
+
+
+
+
If n orthonormal eigenvectors of a Hermitian matrix are chosen and written as the columns of the matrix U, then one eigendecomposition of A is where and therefore
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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+ where are the eigenvalues on the diagonal of the diagonal matrix .
+
+
+
+
The determinant of a Hermitian matrix is real:
+
+
+
+
+ Proof:
+
+
+ Therefore if .
+
+
+ (Alternatively, the determinant is the product of the matrix's eigenvalues, and as mentioned before, the eigenvalues of a Hermitian matrix are real.)
+
+
+
+ Decomposition into Hermitian and skew-Hermitian[edit]
+
+
+ Additional facts related to Hermitian matrices include:
+
+
+
The sum of a square matrix and its conjugate transpose is Hermitian.
+
+
+
+
The difference of a square matrix and its conjugate transpose is skew-Hermitian (also called antihermitian). This implies that the commutator of two Hermitian matrices is skew-Hermitian.
+
+
+
+
An arbitrary square matrix C can be written as the sum of a Hermitian matrix A and a skew-Hermitian matrix B. This is known as the Toeplitz decomposition of C.[3]:p. 7
+
+ In mathematics, for a given complex Hermitian matrix M and nonzero vector x, the Rayleigh quotient[4], is defined as:[3]:p. 234[5]
+
+
+
+ .
+
+
+
+ For real matrices and vectors, the condition of being Hermitian reduces to that of being symmetric, and the conjugate transpose to the usual transpose . Note that for any non-zero real scalar . Also, recall that a Hermitian (or real symmetric) matrix has real eigenvalues.
+
+
+ It can be shown[citation needed] that, for a given matrix, the Rayleigh quotient reaches its minimum value (the smallest eigenvalue of M) when is (the corresponding eigenvector). Similarly, and .
+
+
+ The Rayleigh quotient is used in the min-max theorem to get exact values of all eigenvalues. It is also used in eigenvalue algorithms to obtain an eigenvalue approximation from an eigenvector approximation. Specifically, this is the basis for Rayleigh quotient iteration.
+
+
+ The range of the Rayleigh quotient (for matrix that is not necessarily Hermitian) is called a numerical range (or spectrum in functional analysis). When the matrix is Hermitian, the numerical range is equal to the spectral norm. Still in functional analysis, is known as the spectral radius. In the context of C*-algebras or algebraic quantum mechanics, the function that to M associates the Rayleigh quotient R(M, x) for a fixed x and M varying through the algebra would be referred to as "vector state" of the algebra.
+
Stack Overflow published its analysis of 2017 hiring trends based on the targeting options employers selected when posting to Stack Overflow Jobs. The report, which compares data from 200 companies since 2015, ranks ReactJS, Docker, and Ansible at the top of the fastest growing skills in demand. When comparing the percentage change from 2015 to 2016, technologies like AJAX, Backbone.js, jQuery, and WordPress are less in demand.
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Stack Overflow also measured the demand relative to the available developers in different tech skills. The demand for backend, mobile, and database engineers is higher than the number of qualified candidates available. WordPress is last among the oversaturated fields with a surplus of developers relative to available positions.
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+
+
+
In looking at these results, it’s important to consider the inherent biases within the Stack Overflow ecosystem. In 2016, the site surveyed more than 56,000 developers but noted that the survey was “biased against devs who don’t speak English.” The average age of respondents was 29.6 years old and 92.8% of them were male.
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For two years running, Stack Overflow survey respondents have ranked WordPress among the most dreaded technologies that they would prefer not to use. This may be one reason why employers wouldn’t be looking to advertise positions on the site’s job board, which is the primary source of the data for this report.
+
Many IT career forecasts focus more generally on job descriptions and highest paying positions. Stack Overflow is somewhat unique in that it identifies trends in specific tech skills, pulling this data out of how employers are tagging their listings for positions. It presents demand in terms of number of skilled developers relative to available positions, a slightly more complicated approach than measuring demand based on advertised salary. However, Stack Overflow’s data presentation could use some refining.
+
One commenter, Bruce Van Horn, noted that jobs tagged as “Full Stack Developer” already assume many of the skills that are listed separately:
+
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I wonder how many of these skills are no longer listed because they are “table stakes”. You used to have to put CSS, jQuery, and JSON on the job description. I wouldn’t expect to have to put that on a Full Stack Developer description today – if you don’t know those then you aren’t a Full Stack Web Developer, and I’m more interested in whether you know the shiny things like React, Redux, and Angular2.
+
+
It would be interesting to know what is meant by tagging “WordPress” as a skill – whether it is the general ability to work within the WordPress ecosystem of tools or if it refers to specific skills like PHP. Browsing a few jobs on Stack Overflow, WordPress positions vary in the skills they require, such as React.js, Angular, PHP, HTML, CSS, and other technologies. This is a reflection of the diversity of technology that can be leveraged in creating WordPress-powered sites and applications, and several of these skills are listed independently of WordPress in the data.
+
Regardless of how much credibility you give Stack Overflow’s analysis of hiring trends, the report’s recommendation for those working in technologies oversaturated with developers is a good one: “Consider brushing up on some technologies that offer higher employer demand and less competition.” WordPress’ code base is currently 59% PHP and 27% JavaScript. The percentage of PHP has grown over time, but newer features and improvements to core are also being built in JavaScript. These are both highly portable skills that are in demand on the web.
Stack Overflow published its analysis of 2017 hiring trends based on the targeting options employers selected when posting to Stack Overflow Jobs. The report, which compares data from 200 companies since 2015, ranks ReactJS, Docker, and Ansible at the top of the fastest growing skills in demand. When comparing the percentage change from 2015 to 2016, technologies like AJAX, Backbone.js, jQuery, and WordPress are less in demand.
+
+
+
+
Stack Overflow also measured the demand relative to the available developers in different tech skills. The demand for backend, mobile, and database engineers is higher than the number of qualified candidates available. WordPress is last among the oversaturated fields with a surplus of developers relative to available positions.
+
+
+
+
In looking at these results, it’s important to consider the inherent biases within the Stack Overflow ecosystem. In 2016, the site surveyed more than 56,000 developers but noted that the survey was “biased against devs who don’t speak English.” The average age of respondents was 29.6 years old and 92.8% of them were male.
+
For two years running, Stack Overflow survey respondents have ranked WordPress among the most dreaded technologies that they would prefer not to use. This may be one reason why employers wouldn’t be looking to advertise positions on the site’s job board, which is the primary source of the data for this report.
+
Many IT career forecasts focus more generally on job descriptions and highest paying positions. Stack Overflow is somewhat unique in that it identifies trends in specific tech skills, pulling this data out of how employers are tagging their listings for positions. It presents demand in terms of number of skilled developers relative to available positions, a slightly more complicated approach than measuring demand based on advertised salary. However, Stack Overflow’s data presentation could use some refining.
+
One commenter, Bruce Van Horn, noted that jobs tagged as “Full Stack Developer” already assume many of the skills that are listed separately:
+
+
I wonder how many of these skills are no longer listed because they are “table stakes”. You used to have to put CSS, jQuery, and JSON on the job description. I wouldn’t expect to have to put that on a Full Stack Developer description today – if you don’t know those then you aren’t a Full Stack Web Developer, and I’m more interested in whether you know the shiny things like React, Redux, and Angular2.
+
+
It would be interesting to know what is meant by tagging “WordPress” as a skill – whether it is the general ability to work within the WordPress ecosystem of tools or if it refers to specific skills like PHP. Browsing a few jobs on Stack Overflow, WordPress positions vary in the skills they require, such as React.js, Angular, PHP, HTML, CSS, and other technologies. This is a reflection of the diversity of technology that can be leveraged in creating WordPress-powered sites and applications, and several of these skills are listed independently of WordPress in the data.
+
Regardless of how much credibility you give Stack Overflow’s analysis of hiring trends, the report’s recommendation for those working in technologies oversaturated with developers is a good one: “Consider brushing up on some technologies that offer higher employer demand and less competition.” WordPress’ code base is currently 59% PHP and 27% JavaScript. The percentage of PHP has grown over time, but newer features and improvements to core are also being built in JavaScript. These are both highly portable skills that are in demand on the web.
Stack Overflow published the results of its 2016 Developer Survey, summarizing responses from 56,033 developers in 173 countries. The 45-question survey collected answers from more than twice as many developers as the previous year. The results were published along with a disclaimer recognizing that the survey is "biased against devs…
Stack Overflow has released the results of its 2015 developer survey, which covers a wide range of topics including preferred programming languages, education, compensation, and even caffeine consumption. The 45-question survey ran for just two weeks in February and the site was able to collect results from more than 26,000…
Building on the success of its Q&A communities, Stack Overflow announced that its new Documentation product is now in beta. For the past eight years, the site has rewarded expert advice by floating high quality answers to the top and allowing users to earn reputation points. This formula has turned…
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July 22, 2016
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In "News"
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There are 13 comments
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If there were really no demand for WordPress developers, I would not be so busy. But there may not be that much demand for the kind of developers who hang out on Stack Overflow’s job board.Report
One nuance of over saturation number might be that many people who self–identify themselves as WordPress “developers” might be in “site builder” segment. Off–the–shelf assembly and lightweight customization rather than involved custom development.
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I had certainly never had an impression that there is an oversupply of of WP devs with advanced level of PHP and experience in custom projects.Report
I feel like you’re 100% right on this one. WordPress has many self called ‘developers’ who actually don’t know how to code. I think there’s indeed a lot competition in that space (the “Off–the–shelf assembly and lightweight customization”) but there’s still more than enough work for developers that can actually code complex custom solutions in WP.Report
If I consider myself a ‘page builder’? If you’re asking if I do “Off–the–shelf assembly and lightweight customization” WordPress work, no I don’t. I make and sell WordPress plugins that allow others to do so though :)Report
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You’re 100% correct Rarst. In my opinion, if a person does not have the skills of a computer scientist (OOP specifically) then they cannot really hold the title of a “developer,” albeit outside of project management skills; UML, scrum, etc. Developers can develop because when their calculator breaks, they can still do the math, so to speak. It will just be a little slower.
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Installation, light-weight customization, tweaks, etc., relative to the WP theme design or not, is NOT true development. You must know code/syntax, algorithms (e.g. optimization techniques), etc. to truly “develop” big [project] picture, small picture, and the realtionships between them to tweak code. THAT is development.Report
Agree with you. WordPress is heading towards the right direction and It is necessary to implement REST API quickly to make it more accessible for people who hate to deal with PHP or WordPress tags. Report
tons of wordpress devs – and yet hardly any buddypress devs. I’ve posted several bp jobs and still have 4 plugin projects where no one will take my money.Report
I’m a “BuddyPress developer”, as well as quite a bunch of other people. The problem is that BP is not that big market, it’s not that easy to be 100% focused on BP-related projects only. So such people are either working with WP (mainly) and BP (when something – seldom – appear), or have own business around WP (and sometimes) BP. And such people are marketing WP skills more, I guess.Report
Why doesn’t WordPress have some kind of certification system when it comes to working with WordPress? Make it something similar to CompTIA A+ certification. There could be different levels of verification to cover all aspects of WordPress. It would be a benefit to anyone trying to make a living working with WordPress. It would also be a major benefit for anyone seeking to hire a WordPress professional. There could be a centralized location on dot org that would list certified WordPress professionals tagged with their various certifications.
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Currently, it’s so hit or miss when it comes to hiring someone to provide help with WordPress. You might need someone with just a basic skill set to set up a new site with a standard theme and some basic plugins, but the person you hire is more suited for advanced, complex integrations involving multiple APIs. The problem is, the customer ends up paying far more than they really need to for someone with skill sets far more advanced than what they actually need. Report
In theory, this might be a good idea, though just who would do the certifying? In practice, however, I’ve heard from people who’ve been developing compiled software since before PHP existed that a lot of those certifications really test your ability to take standardized tests, not your ability as a programmer. The best way to hire anybody to do anything is to get a personal recommendation.Report
WordPress.org should do the certifications. Individual testing could happen at WordCamps and/or at local testing facilities like how CompTIA A+ certification is handled. Most clients do not need a programmer or a developer. They need someone who can set up a website. That means finding a host, installing WordPress, installing a theme, and installing plugins.
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If someone hires a programmer to do all that, they are most likely overpaying for the work.
Were you volunteering to help design the tests and conduct the certifications? Or at least set up the means to organize it on make.wordpress.org? It’s an idea that has potential merit and you aren’t the first person to wish there were some kind of standards by which to judge a person’s basic WordPress literacy.
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To the best of my knowledge, however, everything done by WordPress.org is handled by volunteers. In the spirit of open source, if there’s something you want to see happen, you need to get it started.
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An idea like certification would actually need much broader support throughout the WordPress community than a choice of what to focus development on for the next release. And it would require either a means to administer and grade the test online automatically (requiring programming to make it work) or a fairly large army of volunteers to undertake in-person testing. I imagine you could tie up years of surveys and committee meetings just figuring out what you wanted to test for, never mind designing the test itself.
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And you have to decide how often people need to re-certify, because recommendations and best practices change rapidly in the web world.
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Even if you get that far, it will only make a difference if enough people accept the validity of the test and care whether someone has passed it before hiring them.
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And, finally, a test like that could determine whether the person had enough skill to install WordPress, set up a theme, and choose some plugins, or (at a more advanced level) whether they understand WordPress’ action and filter hooks, plus PHP, HTML, CSS, and JavaScript, but it will never tell you whether a person is honest, timely, able to understand (or even ask) what a client’s real needs and goals are, or someone you can work with without both of you going crazy.Report
If there were really no demand for WordPress developers, I would not be so busy. But there may not be that much demand for the kind of developers who hang out on Stack Overflow’s job board.Report
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